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PRACTICAL GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



IN WHICH THE 



PRINCIPLES ESTABLISHED BY LINDLEY MURRAY, 



ARE INCULCATED, AND HIS 



THEORY OF THE MOOD 



CLEARLY ILLUSTRATED BT DIAtRAMS, REPRESENTING THE NUMBER OF 

TENSES IN EACH MOOD THEIR SIGNS AND THE MANNER 

IN WHICH THEY ARE FORMED. 



Third edition, revised and improved. 



BY ROSCOE G. GREENE. 



PORTLAND: 

G. HYDE AND COMPANY, EXCHANGE-STREET. , 

1832. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1832, 
BY THOMAS TODD, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Maine. 



/£ J-J 



A. Shirley, Printer. 



RECOM M END ATION S . 



The Publishers take the liberty to submit the following Re- 
commendations : 

" Mr. R. G. Greene has been for several years advantageously known 
for his success in teaching the principles of Grammar. In his Grammar, of 
which a new and improved edition is now published, he has exhibited his 
own mode of teaching in so perspicuous and intelligible a manner, that any 
other teacher may easily pursue the same mode with similar success. The 
excellence of this method consists in presenting one thing only at a time, 
and that perfectly ; thus giving to the pupil, a clear and distinct compre- 
hension of every principle, before he advances to a new one. Under each 
rule he leaves nothing unexplained, which is necessary to be known, with- 
out embarrassing the subject with explanations that are unnecessary. The 
diagrams illustrating the variations of the verbs have the advantage of 
speaking to the eye as well as the understanding ; and aid the learner at 
once in comprehending and remembering the distinction of the tenses. His 
Grammar is far the best, for beginners, of any, with which I am acquainted ; 
and I am happy to learn, that the public is beginning to be sensible of its 
merits ; and that it is fast taking the place of the Grammars that have been, 
hitherto, used in bur schools. ■ ASHUR WARE," 

Judge of the (J. 8. District Court for Maine District. 

Portland, June 30, 1832. 



" Having introduced the Grammar of Mr. R. G. Greene into the school 
under my charge, and tested "its utility in communicating a knowledge of 
the principles of English Grammar to beginners in the study of that sci- 
ence, I gave it as my opinion, that his arrangement of the subject matter, 
and particularly his mode of illustrating the Moods and Tenses of the Verbs, 
were far preferable to any other that I had seen, and that I believed that 
wherever his book was used, and his plan pursued, much time and labor 
would be saved, both to the teacher and the pupil. Since that time, now 
upwards of three years, I have continued to use the work in my school, and 
the result has been fully to confirm me in the opinions I had expressed. 

" This work offers important advantages in another respect, not to be de- 
rived from any other with which I am acquainted, particularly to those en- 
gaged in our common schools; which in the present order of things, are 
committed to the charge, for the most part, of persons whose acquaintance 
with the science of teaching, must necessarily be limited. The arrange- 
ment of the lessons being natural, regular and progressive, and the direc- 
tions given over each, being clear and distinct, the labors of any teacher, 
well versed in the principles of English Grammar, if he follow these di- 
rections, cannot fail to be attended with complete success. 

H. JACKSON," Teacher of Monitorial School JVo. 1, 

Portland, April 28th, 1832, 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Portland, June 5, 1832. 
" Mr. Greene, 

V Sir : I have examined your English Grammar and am prepared to 
say, that I consider it the simplest and best arranged introduction to a gram- 
matical knowledge of our language which I have yet had occasion to use 
in my school. JAMES FURBISH/' 

Principal of the Female High School. 



"1 have examined with some attention a work entitled " A Practical 
Grammar of the English Language, by Roscoe G. Greene," a third edi- 
tion of which, I understand, is about to be published; and it affords me 
much pleasure to say, that, as an elementary school book, it is in many re- 
spects preferable to any other with which I am acquainted. Its plan and 
arrangement are admirably calculated to facilitate the study of that im- 
portant branch of elementary education which it is designed to teach. The 
author dues not claim for it the power of magic, nor even of intuition. He 
professes only to teach the easiest, plainest and shortest mode of acquiring 
a knowledge of Grammar, calling to his aid, in effecting that object, all 
those principles of local association, visual impression and progressive at- 
tainment, which have been resorted to with such signal success in teach- 
ing some of the other branches. The different senses aid one another in 
acquiring ideas, as the different faculties of the mind do in arranging, con- 
cocting and storing them up for use. Impressions upon the mind are 
strong or weak in proportion to the evidence afforded of the truth of what 
the mind perceives. The evidence of both the eye and car creates stronger 
impressions than that afforded by either alone ; and those impressions, 
which some have identified with the faculty of memory , are greatly strength- 
ened by leading the understanding, at the same time, to perceive the use 
and fitness of that of which the mind thus acquires a knowledge. 

In the proper application of these principles, which belong to the philos- 
ophy of the human mind, consists the secret of easy and rapid acquisition 
of elementary knowledge. Mr. Greene has attempted to apply them to 
the study of Grammar, and I think with decided success. It is in that par- 
ticular that his book is preferable to any other that I have seen, and I con- 
sider it eminently entitled to public patronage. 

JOHN RUGGLES," Judge C. C. P. 

Thomaston, May 10th, 1832. 



" Mr. Hyde, 

Sir : In answer to your request to the School Committee of Portland, 
in relation to Greene's Grammar, 1 am directed by that Board to reply, that 
it was introduced into our Public Schools more than three years since, and 
that it has superseded all others that were in use in said schools. 
"Respectfully yours, 
"CHARLES HOLDEN, Secretary of the School Committee:' 
Portland, June 1, 1832. 



" Messrs. Shirley & Hyde, 

Gentlemen : Having used Mr. Greene's Grammar in my School for 
a number of months past, I do not hesitate to say that for its simplicity and, 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

conciseness, the two most essential requisites in a Text Book for Schools, I 
consider it entitled to a high degree of merit. 

JOSEPH LIBBEY," Teacher, Classical School. 



Portland English High School, \ 
Feb. 25, 1830. $ 

To the Publishers, 

Gentlemen: I cannot better express my opinion of Mr.R. G. Greene's 
Grammar, than by assuring you that I v highly approve the School Commit 
tee's selection of it fur this School. 

J. M. PURINTON, Teacher. 



The following is from the Daily Courier, (Portland) of January 18th, 1831. 

" Greene's Grammar. We would call the attention of our readers to 
the notices, in the advertising columns of this paper, of an English Gram- 
mar by Roscoe G. Greene. We have been acquainted with Mr. Greene, 
and his mode of instruction in English Grammar for seven or eight years, 
and cheerfully record our testimony with the writers of the notices alluded 
to, in favor of the value of the work, and the worthiness of the author. This 
Grammar is used in the principal Public Schools in this town by direction 
of the School Committee, and has also been introduced into many of the 
private schools. And we understand it has heen adopted to considerable 
extent in the schools in other parts of the State. 

On this subject at least we are decidedly in favor of the " American 
System," and are so much in favor of encouraging domestic manufactures, 
that when we find a citizen among us has prepared a book, better suited to 
the instruction of our children, than any imported, we are disposed to use 
it and to recommend it to the use of others. We therefore recommend to 
all who are interested in schools to examine the Grammar in question." 



The following remarks from the Portland Advertiser are from the pen of 
Grenville Mellen, Esq. 
" We think Mr. Greene's mode of instructing by Diagrams too clever to 
pass without full commendation. What stronger principle can we refer 
to, in our attempts to do any thing with the youthful understanding, than 
the principle of association ? The principle which our author has assum- 
ed here, and which does more to effect a knowledge of the subject, than a 
hundred rules unconnected with Diagrams ! This species of illustration, 
as affixed to the verb, we conceive to be of peculiar advantage, by requiring 
the pupil to trace its variations with truth and quickness." 



" For conciseness and simplicity, we are disposed to award Mr. Greene's 
work an extent of praise, which in our opinion, is not merited by any oth- 
er book, now used in the study of English Grammar. 

The process of instruction is so perfectly natural, that the mind takes in 
at every step of its progress, a complete view of the subject desired; the 
understanding is at once brought home by it to a full possession of the sub- 
ject matter embraced in the several lessons into which it is divided." 

1 * Eastern Argus . 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The following remarks, from the Christian Mirror of June 6, are from the 
pen of Rev. Asa Cummings. 

"Mr. Greene's plan of teaching the English Grammar ha^ the best of 
all recommendations to sustain its pretensions — that of " successful exper- 
iment." He commences with a familiar explanation of the noun, which is 
the only part of speech except the interjection, which can be explained un- 
connected with any other. When the noun, with its person, number and 
gender, is well understood, he explains the article, and its uses, and then ex- 
ercises the pupil on examples prepared for the purpose. He next takes up 
the adjective, explaining its variations, office, and connection with the noun, 
and exercising the pupil on a variety of examples composed of the article, 
adjective and noun. The next in. his order is the active verb, which also is 1 
fully explained, and the office of a noun in the nominative case, as an actor, 
is illustrated by appropriate exercises. Into the next following lesson the 
adverb is introduced, and the examples for exercise contain the adverb and 
the parts of speech before mentioned, thus combining what is new, at each 
step, with what has before been rendered familiar to the pupil. In this 
manner the pupil is carried forward, unembarrassed, and understandingly, 
from the simplest to the abstruser parts of this complicated science. He 
is prepared, by previous acquisitions, to comprehend each part, as it is suc- 
cessively presented to the mind. When all the parts of speech have been 
introduced, and their character, government, agreement, &c. are already 
understood — for which from ten to fifteen lessons are requisite — the pupil 
enters upon the study of the moods and tenses, in which the same regard 
to order in the arrangement of examples for exercise is observed, as in the 
introduction of the several parts of speech. In this perhaps the most diffi- 
cult part of Grammar, the learner is assisted by Diagrams representing the 
moods and tenses, in which their various characteristics are impressed on 
the mind, by being presented to the eye. Their regular location in these 
Diagrams aided by the principle of association, is admirably adapted to fa- 
vor their retention in the student's mind, as well as to facilitate his further 
progress. 

" When, the regular verbs are disposed of, different kinds of verbs are 
introduced and illustrated, followed by lessons in analytical parsing, — sup- 
plying ellipses — exercises in bad syntax — Punctuation, .Rhetoric, Compo- 
sition, &c. &c. 

" This imperfect outline of his plan will show, that Mr. Greene's mode 
of teaching is philosophical, in the approved sense of the term. As a man, 
and a teacher, he needs not our recommendation. A five years' residence 
in this town has secured him the esteem and confidence of those, who have 
had the best opportunity to know him." 



" The undersigned, having witnessed the examination of a class in Eng- 
lish Grammar under the tuition of Mr. R. G. Greene of this town, and 
feeling desirous to promote the diffusion of the best principles of education, 
as well as to do an act of justice to Mr. Greene as an instructer, deem it 
proper to state the following facts. 

" The class examined in our presence, consisted of seven ladies. They 
had received twenty daily lessons, of one hour each, and stated that they 
had not devoted more than one additional hou; to the study upon an aver- 
age, each day, making the whole not to exceed forty hours. Most of them, 
when they commenced this course of lessons, were entirely unacquainted 
with the principles of Grammar. They now appeared to be familiar with 
all the parts of speech and their various modifications, could readily parse 
any simple construction of the English language, and answer the most dif- 
ficult questions with respect to the formation of the several modes and 
tenses. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

" It appeared to us that the progress of this class for the time they had 
devoted to the study, had been much greater than is usually made in our 
schools under the ordinary mode of instruction, and we cheerfully recom- 
mend to public patronage both the system and the man." 

"ALBION K. P ARRIS," Governor of the State of Maine. 
Rev. "ASA RAND," Editor Boston Recorder. 
"SEBA SMITH, Jr." A. M. 
Portland, July 29, IS23. 



" Having attended an examination of a class of young Pupils, who had 
received twenty lessons in English Grammar from their instructer, Mr. R. 
G. Greene, I am able to ex, ross my entire concunence m the opinion 
heretofore certified from various quarters, in regard to his qualification and 
success in this department of instruction. I have never witnessed any 
other instance of such proficiency in so short a time. Mr. Greene's in- 
struction illustrates, very forcibly, the importance of presenting a compli- 
cated subject to young minds in distinct and successive portions, and of 
constantly calling the attention to the reasons and general principles which 
appertain" to that subject." 

Hon. " JOSEPH G. KENDALL, A. M." 

Late a Tutor in Harvard College. 

Leominster, (Ms.) May 24, 1823. 



" At the request of Mr. R. G. Greene, we visited a School, instructed 
by him in English Grammar. He appears to us well qualified for perform- 
ing this duty. From the rapid proficiency made by his Pupils, and from 
tne critical and thorough examination, which we attended, we cheerfully 
recommend his course of instruction, as highly favorable for young men 
and women, who, in the present arrangement of our ScIigoIs, have but a 
short season for literary improvement." 

« NATHANIEL THAYER," D. D. 

" NATHANIEL WOOD," A. B. Tutor Harvard College, Cam. 
Lancaster, (Ms.) Jan. 11, 1823. 



M From a knowledge of the gteat defects, arising from want of method, 
in the long established mocie of instruction in English Grammar, and also 
from an acquaintance with the system pursued by Mr. R. G. Greene, which 
is now before the public, I am fully satisfied that the progress of the stu- 
dent may be facilitated thereby, in a degree far exceeding that of any oth- 
er ; and I do confidently believe, that no one, who has fairly and impartially 
examined the same, will hesitate to give it his decided approbation*" 

" DANIEL CLARKE, A. M." 

Portland, Aug. 6, 1823. Late Preceptor of Warren Academy. 



The following } by Wm. B. Seioall, Esq. is taken from the Portland Gazette, 
a We were recently indulged with an opportunity of witnessing the pro- 
gress made by a class of young ladies, having nearly completed a course of 
instruction in English Grammar, under the tuition ,)f Mr. Greene, who has 



&E COMMENDATIONS. 

been engaged in that branch of education in this town, for a few months 
past. It is but justice to the instructer and his pupils to say that the mode 
of explaining and illustrating the elements of our language, by the system 
this gentleman has adopted, is such as to have been attended with uncom- 
mon success. It is not merely by a mechanical exercise of memory that 
the pupil is conducted in his course of instruction, but the rationale of eve- 
ry precept is explained at each step of his progress, until the principles of 
grammar and the construction of language are fully and clearly understood. 
It has been said of old, and the maxim has truth as well as antiquity in its 
favor, " There is no royal way to learning." It is undoubtedly true that 
no valuable intellectual superiority can be attained but by assiduous appli- 
cation and unwearied industry ; but that there are more direct approaches 
to the eminences of learning, than are sometimes pursued, cannot be de- 
nied by those who have been in any degree conversant with the history of 
the progress of the human mind. Those, who are able to afford us any 
such facilities to the acquisition of knowledge, in whatever branch it may 
be, are entitled to substantial encouragement — and believing, as we do, 
Mr. Greene to be altogether deserving, we most cordially wish him an 
abundant harvest of public patronage/' 



" Dear Sir — So far as I have had opportunity to examine your Grammar 
of the English Language, I am satisfied that, while it does not, and should 
not aim at originality of matter, its arrangements, and very appropriate ex- 
amples for illustration, will be found by the teacher well adapted to lead 
the learner, step by step, through the elementary forms of the language, 
till he is able to understand, if not in some cases to anticipate the general- 
izations, which are given, in that part of the Treatise which follows the 
elementary instructions. " Respectfully, your obedient servant, 

Rev. " S. ADAMS," 
Principal of tlie High School for Females. 
"Mr. R. G. GREENE. 
" Portland, Dec. 18, 1828." 



Extract from, the journal of the proceedings of the Artisan's Institute. 

" Voted, That the Society highly approve of the Grammar published by 
Mr. R. G. Greene, and that it be used in the School under their direction." 

"CHARLES HOLDEN, Chairman 
" L. WHITNEY, Secretary:' 
Portland, Dec, 1828.. 



PREFACE. 



A competent knowledge of the Grammar of the English Lan- 
guage, is now considered so essential a part of a business educa- 
tion, that no apology for attempting to render the acquisition of 
it less difficult to beginners, is deemed necessary. 

In selecting materials for the following pages, (though the sys- 
tem of Lindley Murray was considered the standard,) the works 
of other eminent writers on Grammar were consulted, and their 
opinions in some instances adopted. It was not, however, the 
object of the compiler to make innovations in the science itself, 
but to present an improved method of teaching it — to give to long 
established principles, a form more interesting and useful to the 
learner, than any yet presented to the public. 

That oral instruction is calculated to make a more lasting im- 
pression upon the mind, than that received solely from books, 
will, he thinks, be admitted by all who are acquainted with the 
difficulties of teaching this science. He has, therefore, presented 
nothing, in the fiist lessons, but the Definitions, Rules, and Ex- 
amples necessary for practice in parsing, &c. leaving it for the 
instructer to supply whatever may be found necessary, by verbal 
illustration. 

The verb, with beginners in the study, is found the most diffi- 
cult part of Grammar ; — not in itself, but on account of the dif- 
ferent forms that it takes, and the great variety of changes which 
it undergoes in passing through the Moods and Tenses. In or- 
der to obviate these perplexities, and give facility and interest to 
the progress of the student, the compiler has formed Diagrams 
of the several Moods : presenting, at one view, the number of 



PREFACE. 

Tenses in each, their Signs, and the manner in which they are 
formed." 

The utility of these Diagrams has been fully tested, and it is 
confidently believed, that if properly used, they will be found as 
useful in acquiring a critical knowledge of the most complica- 
ted part of Grammar, as maps are in the study of Geography. 

Experience has abundantly shown to every teacher of Gram- 
mar, that learners, especially young learners, find much difficulty 
in committing to memory the variations of the verb in the several 
moods and tenses, and still more in understanding and retaining 
them. 

Something more than the mere metaphysical distinction con- 
veyed by words, seems to be necessary in order to^ender the first 
efforts in this subject, successful and pleasant. 

A striking view of sensible objects, under such modifications 
as will suggest and illustrate the proper distinctions, and afford, 
at a glance, the means of comparison, must necessarily possess 
for untutored minds, great advantages over the subtle, distilling 
process of words. 

Every person, who has at all observed the operations of his own 
mind, must have felt the power of external objects in calling up 
a train of ideas, which for years before, may not have recurred 
to him. 

Reflection will always effectually serve those who in disposing 
of their ideas, employ the principle of local association. When 
they touch upon a link of the well united chain, whether " tenth 
or ten thousandth," they are able to follow the successive con- 
nection to each extremity. 

It is upon this unfailing principle of local association, that these 
diagrams are formed. 

" All the signs by which our thoughts are expressed," says Du- 
gald Stuart, " are addressed either to the eye or to the ear ; and 
the impressions made on these organs, at the time when we first 
receive an idea, contribute to give us a firmer hold of it. Visible 
objects are remembered more easily than those of any other of 
our senses ; and hence it is, that the bulk of mankind are more 
aided in their recollection by impressions made on the eye, than 
by those made on the ear. Every person must have remarked, 



PREFACE. 

m studying the elements of geometry, how much his recollection 
of the theorems was aided by the diagrams which are connected 
with them. This advantage, which the objects of sight, naturally 
have over those of hearing, in the distinctness and permanence of 
the impression which they make on the memory, continues, and 
even increases through life, in the case of the bulk of mankind." 



In case any teacher who may use this work, should not have 
sufficient leisure verbally to illustrate to his pupils, the rules and 
definitions given in the exercises in Etymology and Syntax, com- 
mencing on the 12th page ; or, incase his pupils should be too 
young fully to understand such illustration when given, the com- 
piler would recommend, that they be required to commence the 
subject by committing to memory, in distinct and successive por- 
tions, the answers to the questions on Etymology, at the bottom 
of the 58th and succeeding pages. This will enable them under- 
standingly to enter upon the exercises in Etymology and Syntax, 
and with a little aid from their teacher, to make rapid improve- 
ment in the business of parsing, &c. 

The number prefixed to each question corresponds to the num- 
ber given in the portion of matter designed for the answer. 

%* See directions to teacher and pupil over each lesson. 
(Page 12.) 






* 






Vfc t 



ENGLISH /GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing the 
English language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts, viz. Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, and Prosody. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters, and the just 
method of spelling words. 

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly uttered by itself: 
as, a, e, o ; which are formed without the help of any other sound. 

A consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be perfectly utter- 
ed without the help of a vowel : as, b, d,f, I ; which require vowels to 
express them fully. 

The vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w, and y. 

# r and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable ; but in 
every other situation they are vowels. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a vowel. 
They are, b,p, t, d, k, and c and g hard. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are, 
/, I, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are also distinguished by 
the name of liquids, from their readily uniting with other consonants, 
and flowing as it were into their sounds. 

A dipthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a single im- 
pulse of the voice ; as, ea in beat, ou in sound. 

A tripthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner ; 
as eau in beau, ieio in view. 

A proper dipthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded ; as 
oi in voice, ou in ounce. 

An improper dipthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea in 
eagle, oa in boat. 
2 



10 ORTHOGRAPHY. 



SYLLABLES. 

A syllable is a sound either simple or compounded, pronounced by a 
single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word : 
a&, a, an, ant. 

Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables ; or 
of expressing a word by its proper letters. 

WORDS. 

Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of 
our ideas. 

A word of one syllable is termed a monosyllable ; a word of two 
syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a trisyllable ; and a 
word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable. 

All words are either primitive or derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any simpler 
word in the language ; as, man, good, content. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to another word in 
English of greater simplicity ; as, manful, goodness, contentment, 
Yorkshire. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

The orthography of the English language is attended with much un- 
certainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of this inconvenience 
may be remedied, by attending to the general laws of formation ; and, 
for this end, is presented a view of such general maxims, in spelling 
primitive and derivative words, as have been almost universally received. 

RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending with /, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, 
double the final consonant : as, staff, mill, pass, &c. The only excep- 
tions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. 

RULE II. 

Monosyllables ending with any consonant but/, I, or s, and preceded 
by a single vowel, never double the final consonant ; excepting only. 
add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. 

RULE III. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant form the plurals of 
nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, compara- 
tives, and superlatives, by changing y into i ; as spy, spies ; I carry,, 
thou earnest ; he carrieth or carries ; carrier, carried ; happy, happier, 
happiest. 

The present participle, in ing, retains the y, that i may not be doub- 
led ; as, carry, carrying ; bury, burying, &c. 

But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not 
changed ; as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &c. ; except in lay, 
pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said ; and their 
compounds, unlaid, unpaid, unsaid, &c. 

RULE IV. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming an 
additional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly change?/ 
into i ; as, happy, happily, happiness. But when y is preceded by a 
vowel, it is very rarely changed in the additional syllable : as, coy, coy- 
ly ; boy, boyish, boyhood ; annoy, annoyed, annoyance ; joy, joyless, 
joyful, &c. 

RULE V. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending 
with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a vowel : 
as, wit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet, an abetter ; to begin, a begin- 
ner. 

But if a dipthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding sylla- 
ble, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to offer, an of- 
fering ; maid, maiden, &c. 

RULE VI. 

Words ending with any double letter but I, and taking ness, less, ly, 
or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as harmlessness, care- 
lessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distressful, &c. But those words 
which end with double I, and take ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, gen- 
erally omit one I ; as, fulness, skilless, fully, skilful, &c. 

RULE VII. 

Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with silent e, do not cut 
it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful ; except in a few words : 
as, duly, truly, awful. 

RULE VIII. 

Merit, added to words ending with silent e, generally preserves the 
€ from elision : as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, &c. The 
words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are deviations from the 
rule. 

Like other terminations, it changes y into z,when preceded by aeon- 
sonant : as, accompany, accompanied ; merry, merriment. 

RULE IX. 

Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending with silent e, al- 
most always cut it off ; as, blame, blamable ; cure, curable ; sense, sen- 
sible, &c. ; but if c or g soft comes before e in the original word, the e 
is then preserved in words compounded with able, as change, change- 
able ; peace, peaceable, &c. 

RULE X. 

When ing, or ish, is added to words ending with silent e, the e is al- 
most universally omitted: as, place, placing; lodge, lodging ; slave, 
slavish ; prude, prudish. 

RULE XI. 

Compounded words are generally spelled in the same manner, as the 
simple words of which they are formed : as, glasshouse ; skylight, 
thereby, hereafter. Many words ending with double I, are exceptions 
to this rule ; as, already, welfare, wilful, fulfil : and also the words, 
wherever, Christmas, lammas, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

The second part of Grammar is Etymology ; which treats of 
the different sorts of words, their various modifications and their 
derivation. 

The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which treats of the 
agreement and construction of words in a sentence, 



12 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON I. 

OF NOUNS. A noun is the name of any thing that we can 
see, taste, hear, smell, feel, or conceive of. 

The noun has four properties, viz. Person, Number, Gender and Case. 

Of Person. Person is that quality of the noun, which modifies the verb. 

There are three persons, viz. the first, the second, and the third. 

The first person denotes the speaker — the second, the person spoken to — 
and the third, the person spoken of. 

Of Number. Number is the consideration of an object, as one or more. 

Nouns have two numbers, viz. the singular, and the plural. 

The singular number denotes but one object — the plural, more than one. 

Of Gender. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. 

There are three genders, viz. the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes animals of the male kind — the feminine. 
animals of the female kind — the neuter, objects neither male nor female. 

Parsing a word means pointing out the part of speech to which it belongs, 
and naming its properties, relations, &c. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil to name the part of speech, and give its person, num- 
ber, and gender. 



Men 

Women 

Trees 

Wines 

Apples 

Plums 

Music 

Thunder 

Echo 

Odour 

Incense 

Perfume 

Joy 

Fear 

Hope 

Time 

Space 

Vacuity 

Questions 



are seen. 



are tasted. 



is heard. 



I 

is smelled. 



is felt. 



is conceived of. 



What is a NOUN ? — How many properties have nouns ?— What are they 
called ? — What is meant by person ? — How many persons have nouns ?— 
What does each person denote ? — -What is number ? — How many numbers 
have nouns ? — What are they called ? — What does the singular number de- 
note ? — What does the plural number denote ?— What is meant by Gen- 
der ? — How many Genders are there ?— What does the Masculine Gender 
denote ? — What does the Feminine Gender denote ? — What does the Neuter 
Gender denote ?— What is meant by parsing a word ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



13 



LESSON II. 

OF ADJECTIVES. An adjective is a word added to a noun, 
to express some quality, or circumstance of the thing for which 
the noun stands. 

Adjectives have, commonly, no modification but comparison. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express quality in different 
degrees ; as neio, newer, newest. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, the comparative, and 
the superlative. 

Rule 1. Every adjective belongs to some noun expressed or un- 
derstood. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the noun as in the preceding 
lesson) to parse the Adjectives in connexion with the noun, and to apply Rule 1. 

Large ships \ 

Green trees > are see?i. 

Black clouds ) 



Sour grapes 
Ripe apples 
Sweet plums 



are tasted. 



Softer music 
Distant thunder 
Loud laughter 

Sweet fragrance 
Delightful odour 
Rich perfume 

Deep sorrow 
Ecstatic pleasure 
Greatest fear 



is heard. 



is smelled. 



is felt. 



Future events 
Celestial regions 
Endless miseries 



are conceived of. 



Questions. 

mrSV S "l AD { ECT IVE?-Have adjectives any properties ?-What 
Whafa^r ^u^™^™™*? de ^ ees of comparison are there P- 
What are they called ?- What rule do you give when you parse an adjective ? 

2* 



14 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON III. 

OF ARTICLES. An article is a word prefixed to nouns, 
and pronouns, to limit their signification. 

There are two articles — The is called the definite article, an or 
a the indefinite. 

An and a are one and the same article. An, is used when the following 
word begins with a vowel sound ; as an urn, an hour ; and a when the fol- 
lowing word begins with a consonant sound ; as a meadow, a horse, &c. 

Rule 2. The article refers to its noun (or pronoun) in limita- 
tion. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

Iu which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the noun and adjective as in tee- 
preceding lesson) to parse the Articles, and to give Rule 2. 

The largest vessels } 

The tallest forests \ are seen. 

The brilliant stars ) 



The choicest fruits 
The ripest mellons 
The finest wines 



are tasted. 



A true report 
A distant sound 
A loud voice 



is heard. 



A sweet perfume 
A refreshing odour 
A delightful incense 



is smelkd. 



An acute pain 
An eager joy 
An ardent wish 



felt. 



The celestial spheres 
The highest heavens 
The acutest pains 



are conceived of. 



Questions. 

What is an ARTICLE ?— How many articles are there ?— Which is call- 
ed the definite ?— Which is called the indefinite ?— In what cases is a used : 
—When is an used ?— What rule do you give when you parse an article ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 15 

LESSON IV. 

OF VERBS. A verb is a part of speech which signifies ac- 
tion, (being or suffering.) 

An active verb denotes action, either of matter or mind. 

Of Case. Case is the condition or situation of the noun in relation to 
other words in the sentence. 

Nouns have three cases, viz. the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 

The nominative case to an active verb denotes the doer of the action. 

Rule 3. A verb must agree with its nominative case in num- 
ber and person. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the article, adjective, and 
noun as in the preceding lesson) to tell the case of the noun — distinguish the active verb, 
give its person and number, its agreement with its nominative, and apply Rule 3. 

A brave soldier fights — 

A valiant chieftain conquers — 

The worthless coward trembles — 

An honest tradesman prospers — 

An industrious pupil studies — 

A true friend reproves — 

The aged veteran totters — 

The wisest men err — 

The lonely captive mourns — 

The imprudent youth suffers — 

The furious lion roars — 

The awful thunders roll — 

The smallest birds sing — 

A modest female blushes — 

An artful culprit begs— 

The wilful sinner dies— 

An idle student plays — 

A careless reader blunders — 

The angry tempest rages — 

The foaming billows dash — 

The active farmer thrives — - 

The pupil should be required to repeat the rule applicable to each part of speech, as of- 
ten as it occurs in the exercises, for the purpose of rendering its application familiar. 

Questions. 

What is a VERB ?— What is an active VERB ?— What is CASE ?— 
How many cases have Nouns ? — What does the Nominative Case to an 
active verb denote ? — What rule do you give when you parse a verb ? 



16 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON V. 
OF PARTICIPLES. A participle is a word derived from 
a verb, partaking of the nature of a verb and of an adjective. 

The present participle is formed by adding ing, or ning to the present 
tense of the verb ; as, 

Speak — speaking ; fly — flying ; go — going ; run — running. 

OF ADVERBS. An adverb shows the manner, the time, 
or the place, in which an action is done, when added to a verb, 
or to a participle. 

Adverbs are of different kinds : as, of manner, time, place, &c. 

Rule 4. Adverbs qualify verbs and participles. 
Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing- the article, adjective, noun, 
and active verb,) to distinguish the Adverb, point out the word it qualifies, and apply 



Rule 4. 



The angry waves dash violently 

The small bird sings sweetly 

A prudent person speaks cautiously 

A good servant labours faithfully 

A large stream flows rapidly 

A swift horse trots nimbly 

An old man walks slowly 

A brave general embarks to-day 

The old ship arrived yesterday 

An able statesman speaks to-night 

An industrious student improves daily 

A large army encamped here 

The stoutest yeomen march hither 

A wealthy farmer lives there 

The gallant stranger travels thither 



"y manner. 



time. 



place 



Rule 5. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, (or are 
governed by prepositions.) 

Examples to he Parsed, 

In which the pupil (in addition to parsing the other words) will distinguish the Present 
Participle, tell what word it refers to, and apply Rule 5. 

Reading slowly, boys read correctly. 

Judging hastily, people judge erroneously. 
Questions. 

What is a PARTICIPLE ?— How is the Present Participle formed?— 
What is an ADVERB ?— Have Adverbs any properties ?— What rule do 
you give when you parse an adverb ?— What rule do you give when you 
parse a participle ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 17 

LESSON VI. 

ADVERBS OF DEGREE. The words very, quite, exceed- 
ingly, excessively, extremely, too, and some other words, are de- 
nominated adverbs (ad-words) of degree, when they are prefixed 
to adjectives, or to other adverbs. 

Rule 6. Adverbs of degree qualify adjectives and other adverbs. 
Examples to he Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing- the other words) to point out 
the Adverbs of degree, tell what words they qualify, and apply Rule 6. 

Very large ships sail very rapidly. 

Quite small children read exceedingly well. 

OF PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
Noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word. 

A personal pronoun is a kind of pronoun that shows by its form of what 
person it is. 

There are five personal pronouns ; viz. I, Thou, He, She, and It — with 
their plurals, We, Ye or You, They. 

A TABLE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN THE THREE CASES. 
SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person. 2d person. 3d per. mas. 3d per. fern. ddper.neut. 

Norn. I, Thou, He, She, It, 

Poss. Mine, Thine, His, Hers, Its, 

Obj. Me ; Thee ; Him ; Her ; It ; 







PLUJ 


IAL NUMBER. 






Nom. 


We, 


Ye or You, 


They, 


They, 


They, 


Poss. 


Ours, 


Yours, 


Theirs, 


Theirs, 


Theirs ; 


Obj. 


Us. 


You. 


Them. 


Them. 


Them. 



Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to decline, 
and to parse the personal pronouns. 

An industrious boy studies — he learns exceedingly fast. 
A beautiful girl dances — she moves quite gracefully. 
The largest book falls — it falls very frequently. 
The young ladies sung — they sing extremely well. 
I write — thou writest — he writes — we read correctly. 
You walk. — They play. — We run. — They work. 

Questions* 

What is a PRONOUN ? — What is a personal pronoun ?— How many per- 
gonal pronouns are there ? — Name them. Decline each person, in the sin- 
gular and plural number. 



18 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON VII. 

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. The words Who, Which, 
and That, (when That can be changed into who or which) are 
relative pronouns. 

These pronouns are called relative pronouns because they re- 
present either antecedent words, or phrases. 

Cases of the Relative Pronouns. 

Who is applied only to persons. 
Sin. Nom. Who, Plu. Nom. Who, 

Poss. Whose, Poss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom; Obj. Whom. 

Which is applied to animals and things. 
Sin. Nom. Which, Plu. Nom. Which, 

Poss. Poss. 

Obj. Which; Obj. Which. 

That is applied to persons, animals, and things. 
Sin. Nom. That, Plu. Nom. That, 

Poss, Poss. 

Obj. That; Obj. That. 

When no nominative comes between the relative pronoun and the verb, 
the relative is the nominative. 

Rule. 7. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in 
Person, Number, and Gender. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to decline, 
and parse the relative pronouns, and apply Rule 6. 



The men 



A horse 



A horse 



men 



( who work well 
horse 



( which trots hard 
( horse 



that trots hard 

s b °y 



The boy ( that reads well 



The man 



man 



who speaks to-day ) 
Questions. 



labour very diligently, 
travels very rapidly, 
travels very rapidly, 
speaks very slowly, 
spoke here, yesterday. 



What words are called RELATIVE pronouns ?— Why are they so cal- 
led ? — Decline the relative pronoun who ? — To what is who applied ? — 
Decline the Relative which. To what is which applied ? — Decline the 
Relative that. To what is that applied ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 19 

LESSON VIII. 

OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. The words Who r 
Which and What, when used in asking questions, are Interro- 
gative Pronouns. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

Who labors here ? Which performs best ? What floats hither ? Who 
speaks to-day ? Which came here yesterday ? Who believes sincerely ? 

OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. Adjective pronouns are of 
a mixed nature, participating of the properties both of pronouns 
and adjectives. 

There are five kinds of Adjective Pronouns. 

The Possessive are, My. thy, his, her, our, your, their. 

Distributive are, Each, every, either. 

Demonstrative are, This, that, these, those, former and latter. 
" Indefinite are, Some, one, any, other, all, such. 
" Interrogative are, Which and what (when prefixed to nouns.) 

Rule 8. Every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pro- 
noun expressed or understood. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to parse the 
adjective prououns, and apply i;ule 8. 

My pupils improve daily. Thy son studies hard. His horse 
trots nimbly. Every child walks well. This young lady dances 
gracefully. That man speaks wisely. Some people live care- 
lessly. Every pupil (that studies diligently) parses fluently. He 
(who speaks naturally) speaks eloquently. Those (who attend 
steadily) improve very fast. Good men live happily — they die 
cheerfully. Who sins knowingly 1 Which sings best 1 That 
stream flows very rapidly. Our pupils parse exceedingly well. — 
Which company meets to-day 1 What officer commands here ? 

When the preceding- adjective pronouns are not prefixed to nouns, 
they are parsed as pronouns merely, viz. " Demonstrative pronouns" — " In- 
definite pronouns ," &c. having person, number, gender, and case. 

Questions. 

What words are called INTERROGATIVE pronouns ?— What are ad- 
jective pronouns ? — How many kinds of adjective pronouns are there ? — 
What are they called? — Name the possessive — distributive — demonstrative 

indefinite— interrogative. What are these words called when they are 

not prefixed to nouns ? 



20 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON IX. 

OF ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE AND ACTIVE-INTRAN- 
SITIVE VERBS. An active-transitive verb expresses an ac- 
tion that affects an object. 

An active-intransitive verb expresses an action, confined to the 
actor. 

*The objective case denotes the object of a verb, (participle, or preposi- 
tion.) 

Government means the influence that one word has over another in di- 
recting its case, &c. 

Rule 9. Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding- exorcises) to distin- 
guish the active-transitive, and the active-intransitive verbs, parse the nouns in the objec- 
tive case, and apply Rule 9. 

The base tyrant slew his friend treacherously. 
A generous man bestows his favors seasonably. 
That accomplished lady spends her time properly. 
This wealthy farmer cultivates his land thoroughly. 
Every valiant soldier performs his duty promptly. 
A profligate prince burdens the poor needlessly. 
An indulgent master governs his servants easily. 
Our generous commander pardoned him instantly. 
My noble companion relieved them effectually. 
Each worthy member performs his part cheerfully. 



The young girl reads* ( 

A correct scholar speaks ( 

That aged veteran hears ( 

A careless penman writes ( 

The new vessel sails ( 

Those little birds fly ( 

A wide stream flows ( 

The mail coach arrives ( 



correctly. 

slowly. 

distinctly. 

badly. 

rapidly. 

swiftly. 

smoothly. 

daily. 



Questions. 

What does a TRANSITIVE VERB express ?~ What does an intransi- 
tive Verb express ? — What does the Objective case denote ? — What is 
meant by government? — What rule do you give on parsing a noun or 
pronoun, governed by a transitive verb ? 

*A11 active verbs are transitive when there is any person or thing ex- 
pressed or clearly implied, upon which the action terminates — when they 
do not govern such an object, th^y are intransitive. 



ETYMOLOGY ANIt SYNTAX. 21 

LESSON X. 

Rule 10. Participles have the same government as the verbs 
have from which they are derived. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to parse the 
'voids governed by the participles, and apply Rule 10. 

The farmer caught the boy stealing his apples, We saw the 
stranger writing a letter. The officers arrested the man carrying 
off goods. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. A conjunction is a word that is 
chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out of two, or more sen- 
tences, to make but one : it sometimes connects only words. 

Conjunctions are of two kinds, Copulative and Disjunctive. 
Copulative — and, if, both, that, then, since, for, because, therefore. 
Disjunctive — but, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, notwithstanding. 

Nate 1. The conjunctions and, or, nor, and as, are used for connecting 
words, as well as sentences. 

The other conjunctions are chiefly used for connecting sentences ; or 
members of compound sentences. 

Note 2. A simple sentence contains but one verb, and a noun or a pro- 
noun with which that verb agrees as its nominative ; as, " the heavenly- 
bodies revolve steadily." 

A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences ; as " Time 
fiies swiftly'' and " death approaches." 

Rule 11. Nouns and Pronouns connected by conjunctions must, 
be in the same case. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the exercises in the preceding lessons) 
to par-;e the conjunction— point out its office in connecting words and sentences and ap- 
ply Bule 11. ' v 

He and she saw the transaction. My friend knows him and 
her. He or she wrote this letter. The officer arrested him or 
his neighbor. He rides and walks alternately. They read or 
write continually. The farmer bought and cultivated the land. 

The snow falls very fast and the storm rages violently. 

My neighbor resides here or he gave false information. 

Your son improves fast because he studies diligently. 

Our pupils write badly but they read correctly. 

Questions. 

What is a CONJUNCTION ?— How many kinds of Conjunctions are 
there ?— What are they called ?— Repeat the Copulative. Repeat the Dis- 
junctive. Name the Conjunctions that are used for connecting single 
words. What constitutes a simple sentence ?— What constitutes a com- 
pound sentence ?— What rule do you give for the Conjunction ?— What 
rule do you give on parsing a noun or a pronoun, governed by a parricide ? 
o 



22 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON XI 



OF PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions serve to connect words, 
and show the relation between them. 

A list of the principal prepositions. Above, against, about, after, amidst, 
across, among, athwart, at— behind, below, before, beside, beneath, between, 
betwixt, beyond, by — concerning — doicn, during — except— for , from — in, into— 
near— of, on or upon, over— round or around— since— through, throughout, 
till, touching, toward— under, underneath, up— within, without— out of— 
ever against — next to — according to — instead of, and some other words. 

Note. When the preceding words do not govern the objective case of 
nouns or pronouns, they become adverbs, conjunctions, &c. 

Rule 12. Prepositions govern the objective case. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it isrequired of the pupil (in addition t9 the preceding- exercises) to pai se the 
prepositions, nouns, &c. governed by them — and to apply Hide 12. 

They confided in him. He spoke unto them in parables. 
They called upon her in person. The mast fell athwart the ship. 
He walked with me by moonlight. My friends reside beyond the 
mountain. The fleet sailed down the river. He stands above me. 
The man lives over the store. The General marched on that day 
against the enemy. The stranger passed up 'the hill, near the 
fort, and he saw a vast plain below him. He walked before me 
for the space of an hour. His friends followed after him during 
the day, and on the next morning, they found him behind a cabin, 
in the forest. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. The interjection simply expresses 
some sudden emotion of the mind. It has no connection with 
the sentence, nor any properties belonging to it. The principal 
Interjections are, Ah ! O ! Alas ! Fie ! Poh ! &c. 

When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative 
must be in the possessive case, and governed by the following noun, or in 
the objective, andgovernedby the following verb, or some participle, or pre- 
position, in its own member of the sentence. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

86 9 7 3 2 14 6* 

Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. 
I lost a book yesterday, which my friend found to-day. 
The farm which you bought, I cultivated many years. 
The gentleman whose house you built, lives very genteely. 
The person whose name you mention, left town yesterday. 

Questions. 

What is a PREPOSITION ?— What is meant bv the government of a 
WOf d ?— What is an INTERJECTION ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 23 

LESSON XII. 

OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. The possessive case de- 
notes the possession of property. 

*The possessive case of nouns, in the singular number, is formed by ad- 
ding an apostrophe, followed by an s, thus f's) to the nominative ; and in 
the \ plural number, xchenthe noun ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only. 



The three 


cases of Nouns. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. *Man, 
Poss. Man's, 
Obj. Man ; 


Nom. Men, 
Poss. Men's, 
Obj. Men. 


Nom. Woman, 
Poss. Woman's, 
Obj. Woman; 


Nom. Women, 
Poss. Women's, 
Obj. Women. 


Nom. Eagle, 
Poss. Eagle's, 
Obj. Eagle ; 


Nom. Eagles, 
Poss.tEagles', 
Obj. Eagles. 


Nom. Deer, 
Poss. Deer's, 
Obj. Deer ; 


Nom. Deer, 

Poss. Deer's, (or s') 

Obj. Deer. 



Rule 13. A noun or a pronoun, in the possessive case, is gov- 
erned by the noun it possesses. 

Examples to he Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish 
the nouns and pronouns in the possessive case— point out their government, and apply 
Kule 13. 

^Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. The 
officer's conduct destroyed all hopes of success. He doubts the 
gentleman's integrity. A friend bears a friend's infirmities. The 
deepest sorrow preyed upon that amiable lady's mind. She rang 
for her child, and in its infantine caresses, she forgot her misery. 
His opinion coincides with mine " His performance de- 

serves no commendation, but hers " does. 

Questions* 

What does the possessive case denote ? — How is the possessive case 
formed ? — How is the possessive case formed in the plural, when the sin- 
gular and plural are spelled alike in the nominative ? — How is the singular 
of proper names ending in s, formed ? — How is a noun in the possessive case 
governed ? — Decline the nouns, man, woman, eagle, and deer. 

$ Proper names ending in s, in the singular number, form the possessive, 
by the addition of the apostrophic s ('s) to the nominative : as, Thomas's 
Almanac, Niles's Register. 



24 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON XIII. 
Examples to be Parsed, 

CONTAINING ALL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Religious intolerance drove our fathers from their native coun- 
try. They sought an asylum in the trackless wilds of America. 
Here, in voluntary exile, they lived free. Here, they worshipped 
their God according to the dictates of their own consciences. To 
them liberty appeared more lovely in her wild mountains, than 
tyranny ( " ) in his gaudy palaces. From such men we origina- 
ted. They instilled into the minds of their children, a love of that 
liberty, ( " " " " " " " " " ) a hatred of that tyranny. They 
cherished independence of mind in their offspring, and ( " ) en- 
twined it so firmly with their existence, that it grew with their 
growth, and ( " ) " strengthened with their strength." 

Two centuries rolled on — the wilderness blossomed like ( " ) 
the rose ; and our free and happy colonists soon increased to the 
number of three millions. About that time Great Britain com- 
menced a system of oppressive taxation. This measure aroused 
fheir indignation. They considered taxation and representation 
as inseparable ( " ). In parliament they had no voice — and, 
therefore, they resolved on freedom or death. Ah ! then came 
the " tug of war!" But the wisdom, ( " " ) valor, and ( " ) 
example of the illustrious Washington, inspired a band of hardy 
heroes, who (rising in defence of their wives, ( " ) their children, 
and ( " ) their homes,) led us from bondage to freedom, and ( " ) 
secured, to the nation, a glorious independence. 

We now enjoy the fruits of the labours, ( " " " ) toils, and 
( " " ) cruelties, which our fathers suffered. Cities, ( " ) towns, 
and villages spring up in the forest. The wilderness becomes a 
garden. Peace and plenty, hand in hand, wander through our 
happy valleys and ( " ) sport upon our mountains. The wealth 
of distant nations pours into our lap ; and our enterprize explores 
every section of the globe. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 25 

OF THE MOODS AND TENSES. 

Mood is a particular form of the verb, showing the manner in which 
the being, action, or passion, is represented. There are five ; viz. the 
Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential, Infinitive, and Imperative. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates, or declares a thing. 

Of Tense. Tense is a distinction of Time. The Indicative Mood 
has six tenses ; viz. — the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Plu- 
perfect, the First, and the Second Future Tenses. 

The Present Tense represents an action or event, as passing at the 
time in which it is mentioned. 

The Imperfect Tense represents an action either as past or finished, 
or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past. 

The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but also conveys 
an allusion to the present time. 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing not only as past, but also 
as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence. 

The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to come, either 
with or without respect to the precise time. 

The Second Future Tense intimates that the action will be fully ac- 
complished, at or before the time of another future action or event. 

Of Conjugation. Conjugation literally means, uniting a Verb to 
its Nominative case, of different numbers and persons, in the Moods 
and Tenses. 

Verbs are called regular when their Imperfect Tense, and Perfect Par- 
ticiple, are formed by adding to the Present Tense, ed, or d only, when 
the verbs end in e. AW other verbs are Irregular. 

Examples of Regular Verbs, 

Prcseiit Tense. Imperfect Tense. Perfect Participle. 

I walk, I walked, walked. 

I learn, I learned, learned. 

Examples of Irregular Verbs. 

Present Tense. Imperfect Tense. Perfect Participle. 

I go, I went, gone. 

I break, I broke, broken. 

I find, I found, found. 

The following is a list of the irregular verbs, as they are now gener- 
ally used. Those marked with the letter r, admit also of the regular 
form. 8 

Questions. 

What is Mood .'-How many moods are there ?-Kow does the indicative 
mood represent an action or event ?-What is the meaning of Tense >— 
hl°?^ any .f S wu there ?~ Give a defin ition of each. What is meant 
i/regukrT ' Verl>S ™ ° Med re ^ ar ? - W *at verbs are called 

3* 



26 



EXERCISES IN 



Present* 
I abide, 
I am, 
I bear, 
1 beat, 
I begin, 
I bend, 
I beseech, 
Ibid, 
I bind, 
I bite, 
1 bleed, 
I blow, 
I break, 
I breed, 
I bring, 
I build, 
I burst, 
I buy, 
I cast, 
I catch, 
I chide, 
I choose, 
I cling, 
I come, 
I cost, 
I creep, 
I cut, 
I deal, 

I do, 
I draw, 
I dream, 
I drive, 
I drink, 
I dwell, 
I eat, 
I fall, 
1 feed, 
I feel, 
I fight, 
I find, 
I flee, 
I fling, 
I fly, 
I forsake, 
I freeze, 
I get, • 
I gild, 
I gird, 
I give, 
I go, 
I grind, 
I grow, 
I hang, 
I have, 
I hear, 
I hide, 
I hit, 



bnper. 

1 abode, 

I was, 

I bore, 

I beat, 

1 began, 

I bent, r 

I besought, 

I bade, 

I bound, 

I bit, 

I bled, 

I blew, 

I broke, 

I bred, 

I brought, 

I built, r 

I burst, 

I bought, 

I cast, 

I caught, r 

I chid, 

I chose, 

I clung, 

I came, 

I cost, 

I crept, r 

I cut, 

I dealt, 

I dug, r 

Tdid, 

I drew, 

I dreamt, r 

I drove, 

I drank, 

I dwelt, r 

I ate, 

I fell, 

I fed, 

I felt, 

I fought, 

I found, 

I fled, 
I flung, 
I flew, 
I forsook, 
I froze, 
I got, 
I gilt, r 
I girt, r 
I gave, 
I went, 

-I ground, 
I grew, 
1 hung, r 
I had, 
I heard, 
I hid, 
I hit, 



Perf. Part. 
abode, 
been, 
borne, 
beaten, 
begun, 
bent, r 
besought, 
bidden, 
bound, 
bitten, 
bled, 
blown, 
broken, 
bred, 
brought, 
built, r 
burst, 
bought, 
cast. 

caught, r 
chidden, 
chosen, 
clung, 
come, 
cost, 
crept, 
cut. 
dealt, 
dug, r 
done, 
drawn, 
dreamt, r 
driven, 
drunk, 
dwelt, r 
eaten, 
fallen, 
fed. 
felt, 
fought, 
found, 
fled, 
flung. 

flown. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

got. 

gilt, r 

girt, r 

given. 

gone. 

ground. 

grown. 

hung, r 

had. 

heard. 

hidden. 

hit. 



Present. 
I hold, 
I hurt, 
I kneel, 
I knit, 
I know, 
I lade, 
Hay, 
I lead, 
I leave, 
I lend, 
I let, 
I lie, 
I lose, 
I make, 
I mean, 
I meet, 

J pay, 

I put, 

I quit, 

I read, 

I reave, 

I rend, 

I rid, 

I ride, 

I ring, 

I rise, 

I run, 

I say, 

I see, 

I seek, 

I sell, 

I send, 

I set, 
I shake, 
I shed, 
I shine, 
I shoe, 
I show, 
I shoot, 
I shut, 
I shred, 
I shrink, 
I sing, 
I sink, 
I sit, 
I slay, 
I sleep, 
I slide, 
I sling, 
I slink, 
I slit, 
I smite, 
I speak, 
I speed, 
I spend, 
I spin, 
I spit, 
I split, 



fmpcr 

I held, 

I hurt, 

I knelt, r 

I knit, r 

I knew, 

I laded, 

I laid, 

lied, 

Heft, 

I lent, 

I let, 

I lay, 

1 lost, 

I made, 

I meant, 

I met, 

I paid, 

I put, 

I quit, 

I read, 

I reft, 

I rent, 

I rid, 

I rode, 

I rang, 

I rose, 

I ran, 

I said, 

I saw, 

I sought, 

I sold, 

I sent, 
I set, 

I shook, 
I shed, 

I shone, r 

I shod, 
I. showed, 

I shot, 
I shut, 
I shred, 
I shrunk, 
I sang, 
I sunk, 
I sat, 
I slew, 
I slept, 
I slid, 
1 slung, 
1 slunk, 
I slit, r 
I smote, 
I spoke, 
I sped, 
I spent, 
I spun, 
I spit, 
I split, 



Perj. Fan 
held, 
hurt, 
knelt, r 
knit, r 
known, 
laden, 
laid, 
led. 
left, 
lent, 
let. 
iain. 

lost. 

made. 

meant. 

met. 

paid. 

put. 

quit, r 

read. 

reft, 

rent. 

rid. 

ridden. 

rung. 

risen. 

run. 

said. 

seen. 

sought. 

sold. 

sent. 

set. 

shaken. 

shed. 

shone, r 

shod. 

shown. 

shot. 

shut. 

shred. 

shrunk, 

sung. 

sunk. 

sat. 

slain. 

slept. 

slidden. 

slung, 

slunk. 

slit, r 

smitten, 

spoken. 

sped. 

spent. 

spun. 

spit. 

split. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



27 



Present. 
I spread, 
I spring, 
I stand, 
I steal, 
I stick, 
I sting, 
I stride, 
I strike, 
I string, 
I strive, 
I swear, 
I sweep, 
I swim, 
I swing, 
I take, 
I teach, 



Imper. 
1 spread, 
I sprang, 
I stood, 
I stole, 
I stuck, 
I stung, 
I strode, 
I struck, 
I strung, 
I strove, ■ 
I swore, 
I swept, 
I swam, 
I swung, 
I took, 
I taught, 



Perf. Part. 


Present. 


Imper. 


Perf. Part. 


spread. 


I tear, 


I tore, 


torn. 


sprung. 


I tell, 


I told, 


told. 


stood. 


I think, 


I thought, 


thought. 


stolen. 


I throw, 


I threw, 


thrown. 


stuck. 


I thrust, 


I thrust, 


thrust. 


stung. 


I tread, 


I trod, 


trodden. 


stridden. 


I wear, 


I wore, 


worn. 


struck. 


I weave, 


I wove, 


woven. 


• strung, r 


I weep, 


I wept, r 


wept, r 


striven, r 


I win, 


I won, 


won. 


sworn ? 


I wind, 


I wound, 


r wound. 


swept. 


I wont, 


I wont, 


wont, 


swum. 


I work, 


I wrought 


r wrought, 


swung. 


I wring, 


I wrung 


wrung. 


taken. 


1 write, 


I wrote, 


written. 



taught. 



Defective Verbs. 

A defective verb is a verb which wants some of the principal parts. 
All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are defective. 
The following is a list of the defective verbs. 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participles 

May, might, are wanting. 

Can, could, 

Must, must, — 

Ought, ought, — 

Shall, should, 

Will, would, 

Quoth, quoth. 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 
Have varies both in the second and third persons. Must has no varia- 
tion. Quoth is also a defective verb, and has no variation. The other de- 
fective verbs vary only in the second person singular ; thus, 



Si- 


igular. 






Plural. 




1 


Thou 


He We, Ye 


or You, They, 


Present 


May, 


May-s«, 


May, 


May. 


Imperfect 


Might, 


Mights, 


Might, 


Might. 


Pres. 


Can, 


Can-s£, 


Can, 


Can. 


Imper. 


Could, 


Could-.tf, 


Could, 


Could. 


Pres. 


Shall, 


Shal-*, 


Shall, 


Shall. 


Imper. 


Should, 


Should-sZ, 


Should, 


Should. 


Pres. 


Will, 


Wil-*, 


Will, 


Will. 


Imper. 


Would, 


Would-sf, 


Would, 


Would. 


Pres. 


Have, 


Has-*, 


Has, ' 


Have. 


Imper. 


Had, 


Had-5*, 


Had, 


Had. 


Present 


> 








(St 


I Ought, 


Ought-es*, 


Ought, 


Ought. 


Imper. 


) 









28 EXERCISES IN 

EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE. 

This Diagram is divided iuto six squares, to represent the six tenses of the Indicative 
Mood. The°first square represents the present tense, and the second tbe imperfect . These 
being simple tenses, formed without the aid of auxiliaries, the squares representing them 
contain nothing but the pronouns with which, in conjugating, the verb, write, and its im- 
perfect tense, wrote, are to be united, thus :— 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

*». 

Sin. num. p l*- num - 

1 write, We wrile . 

Thou write-sf, Ye or you write, 
He write-s •, The * w,ite - 

fmperfect Tense. 

Sin. num. p '«- «»*». 

I wrote, We wrote, 

Thou wrote**, Ye or you wrote, 

He wrote ; ~ Tbey wrote. 

Perfect participle written. 

The 3d square represents the perfect tense; the signs of which are have and its varia- 
tions . 

The perfect tense is formed by prefixing the sign, have, ha3t or has, to the perfect par- 
ticiple {written) as is indicated by a line of reference connecting tbe former with the lat- 
ter forming the phrases, I have written; Thou hast written ; He has written, &c. 

The 4th square represents the pluperfect tense ; the sigB3 of which are had and its varia- 
tion. 

Tbe pluperfect tense is formed by prefixing the sign, had or hadst, to the perfect parti- 
ciple (writtt7i) as is indicated by a line of reference connecting the former with the latter 
— forming the phrases, I had written •, Thou hadst written •, He had written, <£c 

The 5th square represents the first future tense ; the signs of which are shall and wilt 
a:id their variations. 

The fir st future tense is formed by prefixing the sign, shall or will, shalt or wilt, to the 
present tense of the Verb (write) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the 
former with the latter ; forming the phrases, I shall or will write •, Thou shalt or wilt 
write ; Ho shall or will write, &c. 

The 6th square represents the second future tense ; the signs of which are shall havt 
and will have, and their variations. 

The second future tense is formed by prefixing the signs, shall have and will hate,U> 
the perfect participle (written) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting tbe former 
with the latter; forming the phrases, I shall have written; Thcu wilt have written; He 
will have written, &c. 



[The Teacher will here call the attention of the pupil, or the class, under in- 
struction, to the figures (representing the Nominatives to the verb) in the Di- 
agram ; the relative position of which are intended to indicate the state of the 
action, represented by the several tenses. For example : — The figure (or nom- 
inative) in the 1st square of the diagram, (Pres. Tense) is in the act of writ- 
ing : — as" I (now) write ;" that in the 2d, square, (Imper. Tense) some time 
since completed the action of xoriting :—as u I wrote" (yesterday) ; that in the 
3d square, (Perfect Tense) Juts just finished the action of writing: — as" I 
have (just) written," fyc] 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



29 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing. 




Examples to be Parsed* 

In which it is required of the pupil, in parsing the verbs, to tell whether they are regu- 
lar, or irregular — whether they are transitive, or intransitive — give the mood and tense, 
number and person of each, and its agreement with its nominative, &c. 

I write. Thou writest. We write. Ye write. They write. She 
writes. The girl writes. Your son writes elegantly. His pupils write 
daily. I wrote. Thou wrotest. He wrote. We wrote. You wrote. 
They wrote. The boy wrote yesterday. The clerk wrote the letter. 
I have written a letter. Thou hast written before. He has written 
repeatedly. We have written our copies. You have written enough. 
I had written before you saw him. Thou hadst written in the new 
book. He had written many letters. We had written our exercises. 
Ye had written ten pages. I shall write to-morrow. Thou wilt write 
again. He will write to you. We shall write to them. Ye will write 
to your friends. They will write immediately. I shall have written 
ten letters by to-morrow noon. Thou wilt have finished thy work. — 
He will have completed his engagement. 

Questions. 

How does the indicative mood express an action or event? — How many tenses has it? — 
What arc they called? — What are the signs of the perfect tense? — How is it formed? — 
What arc the signs of the pluperfect ?— How is it formed? — What are the signs of the 
first future?— How is it formed? — What are the signs of the second future ?— How is it 
formed?— How many of these tenses express past lime?— How many future ?— Conjugate 
the verb xctUk, through the tenses. 



30 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 
Have vaiies both in the second and third persons. Must has no variation. Quoth is 
also a defective verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the 
second person singular ; thus, 





Singular. 






Plural. 




I 


Thou 


He 


We, Ye or You, They, 


Present 


May, 


May-s*, 


May, 


May. 


Imperfect 


Mi s ht, 


Migbt-s/. 


Might, 


Might. 


Pres. 


Can, 


Can-st, 


Can, 


Can. 


Imper. 


Could, 


Could-s*, 


Could, 


Could. 


Pres. 


Shall, 


Shal t. 


Shall, 


Shall. 


Imper. 


Should, 


Should-s*, 


Should, 


Should. 


Pres. 


Will, 


Wil-*, 


Will, 


Will. 


Imper. 


Would, 


Would-s«. 


Would, 


Would. 


Pres. 


Have, 


Has-*, 


Has, 


Have. 


Imper. 


Had, 


Had-s<, 


Had, 


Had. 


Present ) 










and £ 


Ought, 


Ought-e*/, 


Ought, 


Ought. 


Imper. ) 











EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE. 

This Diagramis divided into six squares, to represent the six tenses of the subjunctive 
mood. The names of these tenses are like those of the indicative ; viz. the present, the 
imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second. Each tense has 
the same sign, or signs, and is formed in the same manner as its correspondent tense in 
the indicative mood. 

The principal difference between the conjugation of a verb in the indicative mood, and 
in the subjunctive, in the present tense, consists in the latter's being always preceded 
by a conjunction expressing a doubt, motive, wish or supposition (as is indicated by the 
list of conjunctions given on the left of the diagram,) and when futurity is denoted, in the 
verb's not varying its termination in the secoud and third person singular, as it doe3 in 
the indicative. 

When the verb has no reference to future time, but simply, expresses a doubt, motive, 
wish, &c. though in the subjunctive mood, it varies on account of the peison of its nom- 
inative as it does in the indicative-, and is conjugated thus s — 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, INDICATIVE FORM. 

Present Tense. 
Sin- num. 4 Flu. num. 

If I study, If we study, 

If thou studiest, If ye or you study, 

If he studies •, If they sludy. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, ELIPTICAL 

Present Tense. 



Sin. num. 
If I study, 
If thou study, 
If he study •, 



FORM.* 

Plu. num 

If we study, 

If ye or you study, 

If they 6tudy. 



The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mood are conjugated like the corresponding 
tenses of the indicative mood, except, that a conjunction expressing a doubt, motive, &.c. 
is used before the verb; and, that will and wilt, are not used in forming the second fu- 
ture tense. 



* Before this form of the subjunctive mood, some auxiliary is understood; as in tbo 
Mowing examples—" If I study," i. e. " If I (should) study"—" If thou study," 1. e. 
If thou (shouldst) study." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



31 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a condition, 
motive, wish, or supposition. 



if 

Tho' 
Lest 
Unless 



Prcs. 
Study 



Impcr. 
Studied 



If 




Present. 



^^ 



Per. Part. 
Studied 




If 



Had 

&c. 




.Jim* 

1st Future. 




Perfect. 



Shall 
Have 
&c. 




2d Futwie. 



Examples to be Parsed, 

In which ii is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distin- 
guish the verbs, in the subjunctive mood— conjugate them, and explain the difference be- 
tween the subjunctive mood and the indicative. 

He will study if I require it. Thou wilt study if I give ( " )"thee a 
book. We shall go if the stage arrive in season. We shall leave 
town to-morrow unless it storm. I shall go without him unless he come 
soon. On condition that he come I will consent to his proposal. He 
will maintain his argument, though he lose his reputation. He will gain 
admission if he pass the guard. He will punish his enemies though 
they despise his power. 

If he desire it, I will perform the operation. Though he slay me, 
yet will I trust in him. Though he excel her in knowledge, she ex- 
ceeds him in virtue. I will support him If he conduct honourably. 



Questions. 

How does the subjunctive mood express an action or event? — How many tenses has 
it? — What are they called? — Does the present tense of the subjunctive mood differ from 
the present tense of ihe indicative? — In what particular does it differ? — Hoes it differ 
from the indicative in the imperlect tense?— What are the signs of the perfect, pluperfect, 
firbt and second future tenses of the subjunctive mood? — How is each tense formed? — 
In what particular does the formation of the second future tense differ from that of the 
indicative ?— What conjunctions are used in forming the subjunctive mood? —Conjugate 
the verb study, through all the tenses of the subjunctive mood. 



32 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Have varies both in the seccmd and third persons. Must has no variation. Quoth is also a defec- 
tive verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the second person singular ; 
thus :— 





Singular. 

I 
May, | 


Present 


Imperfect 


Might, 


Pres. 


Can, 


Imper. 


Could, 


Pres. 


tShdll, 


imper. 


Should, 


Pres. 


Will, 


Imper. 


Would, 


Pres. 


Have, 


Imper. 


Had. 


Present f 




and > 


Ought, 


Imper. ) 





Thcu 
Msy-st, 
Might-s*, 
Can-st, 
Could-rf, 
Shal-r, 
Should-ft, 
Wil-f, 
Would-**, 
Has-*, 
Had-rt, 

Ought-esr, 



He 

May, 

Might, 

Can, 

Could, 

Shall, 

Should, 

Will, 

Would. 

Has, 

Had, 

Ought, 



Plural. 
We, Ye or You, They, 
May. 
Might. 
Can. 
Could. 
Shall. 
Should. 
Will. 
Would. 
Have. 
Had. 

Ought. 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE. 

Thii Diagram is divided into foursquares, to represent the four femes of the Potential Mood. — 
The 1st represents the present tense - r the2d, the imperfect; the 3d, the perfect; and the 4ih, the 
pluperfect. 

The signs of the present tense, are may and can, and their variations. 

The present tense of the potential mood is formed by prefixing the sign may or can, to the verb 
(strike) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting theybrmer with the latter — forming the 
phrases — I may or can strike — Thou mayst or canst strike — He may or can strike, &c. 

The signs of the imperfect tense are might, could,would, and should, and their variations. 

The imperfect tense of the potential mood is formed by prefixing the sign might, could, would, or 
shmdd, to the verb (strike) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the 
latter — forming the phrases — I might, could, would, or should write — Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst 
or shouldst write — He might, could, would, or should write, &c. , 

The sign3 of the perfect tense, are may or can have, and their variations. 

The perfect tense of the potential mood is formed by prefixing the signs may or can have, to the 
perfect participle (struck) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the lat- 
ter — forming the phrases — I may or can have struck — Thou mayst or canst have struck — He may 
or can have struck, kc. 

The siins of the pluperfect tense, are might, could, would, or should have, and their variations. 

The pluperf set tense of the potential mood is formed by prefixing the signs, might, could, would 
or sliould have, to the perfect participle (struck) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting 
the former with the latter— forming the phrases — I might, could, would, or should have struck — 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have struek — He might, could, would, or should have 
struck, &.c. 



^Shall and will, when they denote inclination, resolution, or promise, may be considered, as well a* 
theii variations should and would, as belonging to the potential mood. But at they generally signify 
futurity, they have been appropriated, as helping verbs, to the formation of the future tenses ol the 
indicative and subjunctive moods. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 
POTENTIAL MOOD. 



33 



The Potential Mood implies possibility, or liberty, power, will, 
or obligation. It has four tenses. 




Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercise?) to distinguish, 
parse, aud conjugate the several verbs, in the potential mood. 

I may strike thee. Thou canst strike the man. He may strike the 
soldier. We can strike them again. You may strike him. They may 
6trike the boys. I might strike them together. Thou coukfst strike 
the man's dog. He would strike him — We would strike thee — Ye 
might strike them — They might strike us — I may have struck the 
wrong person — Thou mayest have struck — He may have struck his 
antagonist. I might have struck my enemy. Thou mightst have struck 
the master. He might have struck the soldier. My friend writes let- 
ters very often. He wrote many letters to his friends. I will attend 
if he require it. Thou wilt huit thyself, if thou injure him. He acts 
uprightly, unless he deceives me. We shall arrive by noon, unless it 
rain. I will trust in him, though he slay me. 

Questions. 

How does the Potential Stood express an action or event 7 How many tenses has the 
potential mood ? What are tbey called ? What are the signs of the present tense? How 
is the present tense of the potential mood formed? What are the signs of the impcrfe* t 
tense? How is it foimed 7 What are the signs of the perfect tense? How is it formed ? 
What ai e the signs of the pluperfect tense ? Kcw is it foimed 7 Conjugate the verb strike 
through all the tenses of the potcr tial mood- 

4 



34 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 
Have vaiies both in the second and third persons. Must has no variation. Quoth 1* 
also a defective verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the 
second person singular ; thus, 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Present 


May, 


Imperfect 


Might, 


Pres. 


Can, 


Imper. 


Could, 


Pres. 


Shall, 


Imper. 


Should, 


Pres. 


Will, 


Imper. 


Would, 


Pres. 


Have, 


Imper. 


Had, 


Present ) 




and > 


Ought, 


Imper. 3 





Thou 


He 


We, Ye or You, Thry 


May-si, 


May, 


May. 


Might-si, 


Might, 


Might. 


Can-si, 


Can, 


Can. 


Could-si, 


Could, 


Could. 


Shal-i, 


Shall, 


Shall. 


Should-si, 


Should, 


Should. 


WiU, 


Will, 


Will. 


Would-si. 


Would, 


Would. 


Has-i, 


Has, 


Have. 


Had-si, 


Had, 


Had. 


Ought-es^ 


Ought, 


Ought. 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE. 

This Diagram is divided into two squares, to represent the tenses of 4 he Infinitive 
Mood. The first square represents she present tense, which is formed by prefixing to, the 
sign of the infinitive mood, to the verb (go) as is indicated by the line of reference con- 
necting the former with the latter — forming the phrase, 1 7 go. 

The second square represents the perfect tense, which is formed by prefixing to have 
to the perfect participle (gone) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the 
former with the latter — forming the phrase, to have gone. 

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows make, need, see, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, 
say, know, have, observe, behold, perceive, or (heir participles, the sign to is omitted ; as, 
I make him study. I bade him do it. 

Exceptions. The sign To is sometimes employed, after needs, know, have, &c. as in the 
following examples, and some others, 

" Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 

As to be hated weeds but to be seen."— Pope. 

" One needs no more than to observe how strongly we are touched by mere pictures." 
The use of to after need is frequent among the best writers, especially, when there are 
any intervening words. Have, denoting possession or obligation,, is generally followed 
by to ; as, " I have to write daily" — " I had to do this." When have implies volition, to 
is generally omitted; as, " Would they have us reject so good an offer'?" 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently of the rest of the sen- 
tence, supplying the place of the conjunction that, with the potential mood; as, "To con- 
fess the truth, I was in fault ;" ' ' To begin with the first ;" u To proceed ;" " To conclude ;" 
that is, " That I may confess," tec. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 



35 



The Infinitive Mood expresses an action or event, in a general 
and unlimited manner, without regard to number, or person. It 
has but two tenses ; viz. the present and the perfect. 



Present 

Go 



Imperfect 
Went 



Perfect Par. 
f Gone 



\ 

To 

Present Tense. 



...ifyTTJi.O- - 




Rule 14. The infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, 
adjective, or participle. 



Examples to be Parsed, 



In which it is required of the pupil, (in addition to the preceding exercises, to distin- 
guish, conjugate, and parse, the several verbs, in the infinitive mood, and to apply Rule 14. 

He promised to go immediately. They intended to destroy their 
enemies. He ought to embrace the first opportunity. The boy ought 
to have studied grammar earlier. She expects to see her friends from 
the country. No person can expect to improve without application. 
We see many persons conduct themselves very foolishly. He will not 
let the people go. He made each man perform his duty. He saw the 
fleet enter the harbour. He began to figure to himself the miseries of 
confinement. She resolved to do good and to avoid evil, without re- 
gard to the opinions of men. I dare say he will arrive in season. 

Questions. 

How docs the infinitive mood express an action or event ? How many tenses has it ? 
What are they called ? What is called the sign of the infinitive mood ? What are the signs of 
the perfect tense? How is the present tense of the infinitive mood formed'! How is the per- 
fect tense formed? Is the sign to always prefixed to a verb in the infinitive mood' 
When should it he omitted ? 



36 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Have varies both in the second and third persons. Must has no variation. Quoth is also a detec- 
tive verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the second person singular ; 
thus:— . 



Pretent 
Imperfect 
Pres. 
Jmper. 
Fret. 
Imper. 
Pres. 
Imper. 
Pres. 
Imper. 
Present } 
and \ 
Imper. ) 



Singular. 

I 
May, 
Might, 
Can, 
Could, 
Shall, 
Should, 
Will, 
Would, 
Have, 
Had. 

Ought, 



Thon 
May-si, 
Might-sf, 
Can-sf, 
Could-sf, 
Shal-f, 
Should-sf, 
WiU, 
Would-s£, 
Has-t, 
Had-rf, 

Ought-«sf, 



He 

May, 

Might, 

Can, 

Could, 

Shall, 

Should, 

Will. 

Would, 

Has, 

Had, 

Ought, 



Plural. 
We, YeorYou,Th«j, 

May. 

Might 

Can. 

Could. 

Shall. 

Should. 

Will. 

Would. 

Have. 

Had. 

Ought. 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE. 



The Diagrams representing the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, and the Infin. 
itive Moods, are subdivided to indicate the number of tenses in each mood; viz. that for the 
Indicative Mood, into six squares, to show that, that mood has six tenses ; that for the 
Subjunctive, into the same number 5 that for the Potential into four; that for the Infinitive 
into two ; but the Imperative having but one tense, the Diagram representing it, re- 
mains entire. 

As verbs vary for person and number, as well as for mood and tense, it has been thought 
more convenient and useful, (on the page opposite each Diagram) to present the verb 
with reference only to its variations for person and number, and afterwards to inculcate 
by means of the Diagrams, the distinctions of mood and tense. 

By these remarks it is believed that any intelligent pupil will be enabled to conjugate 
readily and understanding^ the following verbs — viz. Write, jn the Indicative mood ; 
Study, in the Subjunctive ; Strike, in the Potential ; Go, in the Infinitive ; and March, in 
the Imperative. After which, ho will be able to conjugate any other verb in the same 
manner, with fluency and correctness. 

In philosophical strictuess, both number and person might be entirely excluded from 
every verb. They are in fact, the properties of nouns, not a part of the essence of a verb. 
Even the name of the Imperative Mood, does not always correspond to its nature; for it 
sometimes petitions as well as commands. But, with respect to these points, the practice 
of our grammarians is so uniformly fixed, and so analogous to the languages, ancient and 
modern, which our youth have to study, that it would be an unwarrantable degree cf in- 
novation, to deviate from the established terms and arrangements. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 37 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhorting, en- 
treating, or permitting. It has but one tense and one person ; 
viz : the present tense, and the second person. 



Present Tense 



Singular Plural 

March thou March ye 

or or 

Do thou march Do ye march 





Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distin- 
guish, conjugate, and parse the several verbs in the imperative mood. 

Study ( " ) thy lesson. Study ( " ) your lessons. Go ( " ) to 
school in season. Depart ( " ) from me immediately. Behave ( " } 
well, if thou lovest virtue. Imitate ( " ) thy superiors in wisdom. 
Love ( " ) thy neighbour as thou lovest thyself. Waste ( " ) not thy 
time. Omit ( " ) no opportunity for improvement. Avoid ( " ) sin, 
if you desire to escape temptation. He can write elegantly or I have 
mistaken his exercises. Let ( " ) no man pretend to superior attain- 
ments unless he can fairly support his claims. He can excel me if he 
chooses. The man might have seen his friend if he had asked permis- 
sion. Betray ( " ) not thy friends. Render ( " ) good things for 
evil ( " ). Live ( " ) properly that you may die cheerfully. 

Questions. 

How is the Imperative Mood used? Haw many Tenses has it? Is the nominative to 
.& verb in this mood generally expressed 1 How many moods are there ? How does each 
express an action or event 1 How many Tenses has each mood? Conjugate the verb study 
in t*ic indicative, subjunctive, potential, infinitive and imperative moods ■, and tell huw 
tbe tenses are formed in each. 

4* 



38 



EXERCISES IN 



Remarks on Conjugation. 

Instead of the form of conjugation already given, which by way of 
distinction may be denominated the common, or simple form, we often 
prefix the neuter verb be, or am, (as an auxiliary) through all its moods 
and tenses, to the present participle ; thus, I am writing — Thou art 
writing — He is writing, fyc. This may be called the participial form 
of conjugation. 

When we mean to express ourselves with energy and positiveness, 
we prefix the verb do and its variations as auxiliaries, in forming the 
present and imperfect tenses to the verb ; thus, / do write — Thou dost 
write — He does write, fyc. This may with propriety be called the em- 
phatic form. 

EXAMPLES OF THE THREE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 
Simple Form* Participial Form. Emphatic Form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular Number. 

I write, I am writing, 1 do write. 

Thou writest, Thou art writing, Thou dost write. 

He writes, He is writing, He does write. 

Plural Number. 

We write, We are writing, We do write. 

Ye write, Ye are writing, Ye do write. 

They write, They are writing, They do write. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular Number. 

I wrote, I was writing, I did write. 

Thou wrotest, Thou wast writing, Thou didst write. 

He wrote, He was writing, He did write. 

Plural Number. 

We wrote, We were writing, We did write. 

Ye wrote, Ye were writing, Ye did write. 

They wrote, They were writing, They did write. 

Rule 15. Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same 
mood and tense, and of the same form of conjugation. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil, (in addition to the preceding exercises) in parsing 
the verb, to distinguish the form of conjugation, point out the office of the conjunctions, 
and apply Kule 15. 

He did tell ( " " ) his fault, and entreat me to forgive him. If thou 
sincerely desire, and really seek virtue, thou wilt find her. My friend 
is writing letters, and sending them abroad. He will succeed, and ob- 
tain his end. He rides or walks daily. They are pursuing their ene- 
mies, and destroying them with the sword. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



30 



A neuter verb expresses neither action, nor passion, but simply be- 
ing, or a state of being. 

CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB, BE (OR AM.) 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 

I am, 

Thou art, 

He, she or it is ; 



Plural. 
We are, 
Ye or you are, 
They are. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 

I was, 
Thou wast, 
He was ; 



Plural. 
We were, 
Ye or you were, 
They were. 



PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 

I have been, 
Thou hast been, 
He has been : 



Plural. 
We have been, 
Ye or you have been, 
They have been. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
I had been, 
Thou hadst been, 
He had been ; 



Plural. 
We had been, 
Ye or you had been. 
They had been. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 
I shall or will be, 
Thou shalt or wilt be, 
He shall or will be ; 



Plural. 
We shall or will be, 
Ye or you shall or will be 
They shall or will be. 



SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 

I shall have been, 
Thou wilt have been, 
He will have been ; 



Plural, 
We shall have been, 
Ye or you will have been, 
They will have been. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present participle, Being, — Perfect participle, Been, — Compound per- 
fect, Having been. 



40 


EXERCISES IN 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 




Judicative Form. 


PRESENT TENSE. 


Elliptical Form 


Singular. 
If I am, 
If thou art, 
If he is ; 




Singular. 
If I be, 
If thou be, 
If he be; 


Plural. 




Plural. 


If we are, 
If ye are, 
If they are. 


IMPERFECT TENSE. 


If we bo, 
If ye be, 
If they be. 


Singular. 
If I was, 
If thou wast, 
If he was ; 




Singular. 

If I were, 
If thou wert, 
If he were ; 


Plural. 




Plural 


If we were, 
If ye were, 
If they were. 




If we were, 
If ye were, 
If they were. 



The remaining tenses of this mood are conjugated like the corres- 
pondent tenses of the indicative mood, excepting, that will and wilt 
axe not used in forming the second future tense. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1 may or can be, 
Thou mayst or canst be, 
He may or can be ; 



Plural. 
We may or can be, 
Ye or you may or can be, 
They may or can be. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should be, We might,could,would, or should be. 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst or Ye or you might, could, would or 

shouldst be, should be, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would or should 

be; be. 



Singular. 
I may or can have been, 
Thou mayst or canst have been 
He may or can have been ; 



PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural 
We may or can have been, 



Ye or you may or can have been, 
They may or can have been. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



41 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or should 

have been, have been, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or 

shouldst have been, should have been, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or should 

have been ; have been. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present tense, To be, Perfect tense, To have been. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 



Be thou, or do thou be, 



Be ye or you, or do ye be. 



OF PASSIVE VERBS. A Passive Verb expresses an ac- 
tion, done to its own nominative. 

To form a passive verb, prefix be, am, art, is, are, was, were, 
toast, (wert,) or been, to the Perfect Participle of a transitive verb. 

THE PASSIVE FORM OF THE VERB LOVE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
I am loved, 
Thou art loved, 
He is loved; 



Plural. 

We are loved, 

Ye or you are loved, 

They are loved. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
I was loved, 
Thou wast loved, 
He was loved ; 



Plural. 

We were loved, 

Ye or you were loved, 

They were loved. 



Questions. 

How many forms of conjugation are there ? — What are they called ? — 
How is each formed ? — (See page 38 J What is a neuter verb ? — Conjugate 
the neuter verb Be or Am, through the several tenses of the Indicative, 
Subjunctive, Potential, Infinitive and Imperative Moods, and give its pres- 
ent, perfect, and compound perfect participles. 



42 



EXERCISES IN 



PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

I have been loved, We have been loved, 

Thou hast been loved, Ye or you have been loved, 

He hath, or has been loved ; They have been loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I had been loved, We had been loved, 

Thou hadst been loved, Ye or you had been loved, 

He had been loved ; They had been loved. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 shall or will be loved, We shall or will be loved, 

Thou shalt or wilt be loved, Ye or you shall or will be loved, 

He shall or will be loved ; They shall or will be loved. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singula?-. Plural. 

I shall have been loved, We shall have been loved, 

Thou wilt have been loved, Ye or you will have been loved, 

He will have been loved ; They will have been loved. 

The Nominative to an active verb denotes the doer of the action. 

The Nominative to a neuter verb denotes merely the subject of 
the verb. 

The Nominative to a passive verb denotes the sufferer, or receiver 
of the action. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distin- 
guish, and parse tuepas-ive and neuter verbs. 

The Lottery is drawn by the Manager. The manager draws the 
lottery. The goods were purchased by the merchant. The merchant 
purchased the goods. Health is promoted by exercise. Exercise pro- 
motes health. The thief was taken by the officer. The officer took 
the thief. The goods were sold by the Auctioneer. The Auctioneer 
sold the goods, The house was furnished. The rogue was detected. 
I am in good health. Thou art in business. He is in Europe. We 
are in good company. You are with your friends. They are in con- 
stant employment. 

Questions* 

What is a passive veib ? — How is a passive verb formed? — What does 
the nominative case to an active verb denote ? — What does the nominative 
case to a passive verb denote ? — What does the nominative case to a neuter 
verb denote ? — Conjugate the verb Love in the passive form, through the 
different tenses of the several moods. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 43 

Rule 16. A Perfect Participle, unconnected with an auxiliary, 
relates to the noun or pronoun which it qualifies or describes. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish, 
and parse, the perfect participles, and to apply Rule 16. 

The Captain found the ship considerably injured. He discovered a 
soldier badly wounded. They left the prison strongly guarded. He 
met a gentleman neatly dressed. We saw a man sorely afflicted. My 
neighbor purchased a house well furnished. 

Rule 17. Intransitive, Passive, and Neuter Verbs , take the 
same case after as before them, when both icords signify the same 
person, or thing. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In w Lich it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish, 
and parse the nouns and pronuuus in the nominative case alter the several verbs, and to 
apply Rule 17. 

Washington was a brave general, and an able statesman. This gen- 
tleman is my protector, and friend. Addison is a teacher of wisdom, 
and a faithful copier of life and manners. Death is the king of terrors. 
I know him to be my friend. *Who does he think that we are? She 
fell a victim to despair. She walks a goddess, and she moves a queen. 
Her name was called Penelope. Bonaparte was made emperor of 
France. 

Rule 18. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns , mean- 
ing the same thing, and having the same grammatical relation. 
are put by apposition in the same case. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distin- 
guish the nouns and pronouns, in apposition, and to apply Rule 18. 

Artaxerxes the king, decreed that Ezra, the priest and scribe of the 
law, should be obeyed in all things. Paul the apostle, was a preacher 
of righteousness. I paid the money to the merchant, him who bought 
your house. 



*The indicative mood simply indicates or declares a thing, or aski 
question. 



44 EXERCISES IN 

Rule 19. A verb, having two or more nominative words con- 
nected by the copulative and, must be of the plural form. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distin- 
guish the words connected by and, and, on parsing the verb agreeing with them, to 
apply Rule 19. 

Diligence and industry are material duties of the young. Wealth 
and titles are the gifts of fortune. Peace and contentment are the pe- 
culiar endowments of a well-disposed mind. Time and tide wait for 
no man. Q,uin the comedian was a great wit. 

Rule 20. A verb, having two or more nominatives of the sin- 
gular number, connected by the disjunctive or, or nor, must be 
of the singular form. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to dis- 
tinguish the words connected by or and nor, and to apply Rule 20. 

The master or his servant is greatly in fault. Indolence or intemper- 
ance is the cause of his misfortune. He or she has done this mischief. 

Rule 21. When a noun or pronoun has no verb to agree with 
it, but is placed before a participle, it is in the nominative case 
absolute. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

To which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding e\-ercise c ) lo distinguish, 
and parse the words, in ihe ca.se absolute, and to appiy Slule 2j. 

The business being finished, the court adjourned. The sun being- 
risen, the day become fine. The orator having finished his discourse, 
the people retired. The winter being severe, the inhabitants suffered. 
Barlow, the bookseller, has published the Garland, a valuable work. 

Rule 22. When a direct address is made to a person or thing, 
the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case independent* 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil, (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distin- 
guish, and parse the words in the nominative case independent, ami to apply Rule 22. 

Plato, thou reasonest well ! It must be so. Hail ! wedded love, 
perpetual fountain of domestic sweets. Oh, stretch, thy reign, fair 
Peace, from shore to shore. My son, go to thy repose. O Grave, 
where is thy victory ! O Death, where is thy sting ! 

*AH nouns in the second person are in the nominative case independent. 



ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, &C. 45 

Rule 23. 77te Infinitive Mood, or part of a sentence, is some- 
times the subject of a verb, and therefore its nominative. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which ills required of the pupil (in addition to (be preceding exercises) to distinguish 
and parse tbe phrases that form the noxniuatives to the several vfrbs, and to apply ?S 

To err is human nature— to forgive, divine. To eat is pleasant, but 
to fast is wholesome. To be well acquainted with one's native lan- 
guage, is nothing to boast of; but not to be well acquainted with it, is 
a disgrace. 

When the participle of the neuter verb Be, preceded by a transitive verb, or 
a preposition is accompanied by a noun, adjective, or adverb, it frequently 
makes part of a substantive phrase, avid the whole phrase is in the objective 
case, and governed by the preceding transitive verb, or the preposition. 

Examples. An Indian will resent his being denied the use of his 
musket. The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall neither 
attempt to palliate nor deny. 



OF ELLIPSIS. 

The omission of any words necessary to the grammatical construc- 
tion of a sentence, is called Ellipsis ; as, I beg you will come ; for, I 
begjOat you wfll come: I rose at seven : for, I rose at seven of the 

ou^ttw wS. ° f dlipSiS " t0 aV ° ld r - Ctlti ° nS ' and t0 -P- s 
Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical : it is 
therefore, very necessary to attend to this figure, or mode of expression! 
Examples, 

J^ZT l^t mQth0d of SU PP]F«S- the words that are implied, and of 
analyzing sentences, is pointed out. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE NOUN. 

She is a good-natured, diligent, zodl-hehxved girl ; instead of, She is 
a good-natured, (girl, and a) diligent, (girl, and a) well-behaved girl. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Much rain and snow ; i. e. Much rain and (much) snow. A delight- 
ful garden and orchard ; i. e. A delightful garden and (a delightful) 
orchard. 7 / / 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ARTICLE. 

A man, woman and child; i. e. A man, (a) woman, and (a) child. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE VERB. 

I desire to hear and to learn; i. e. I desire to hear, and (I desire) to 
learn. She was young, and beautiful, and good ; i. e. She was young, 
and (she was) beautiful and (she was) good. 
5 



46 EXERCISES IN 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ADVERB. 

They sing and play most delightfully; i. e. They sing (most delight- 
fully,) and (they) play most delightfully. She reads and ivrites well ; 
i. e. She reads (well) and (she) writes well. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PERSONAL AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

/ love and fear him ; i. e. I love (him,) and (I) fear him. I have read 
the book you lent me ; i. e. I have read the book (which) you lent me. 
This is the man they love ; i. e. This is the man (whom) they love. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

I desire you will be good ; i. e. I desire (that) you will be good. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PREPOSITION. 

I gave them to your brother and sister ; i. e. I gave them to your 
brother, and (to your) sister. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE INTERJECTION, 

Oh ! pity and shame ; i. e. Oh, pity ! Oh, shame ! 

ELLIPSIS OF A PART OF A SENTENCE. 

Nature has given to animals one time to act, another to rest : L e. 
Nature has given to animals one time to act (and nature has given to 
animals) another (time) to rest. 

" There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their 
own characters." 

There is nothing (in winch) men are more deficient, than (in) know- 
ing their own characters. 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis r 
' Wo is me:' i.e. 'Wo is to me.' 'To let blood;' i.e. 'To let out 
blood.' ' To let down ;' i. e. 'To let it fall or slide down.' ' To walk 
a mile;' i. e. 'To walk through the space of a mile.' 'To sleep all 
night ;' i. e. ' To sleep through all the night.' ' To go a fishing,' ' To 
go a hunting ;' i. e. ' To go on a fishing voyage or business,' — ' To go 
on a hunting party.' ' I dine at two o'clock,' i. e. ' at two of the clock.' 
' By sea, by land, on shore ;' i. e. ' By the sea, by the land, on the shore.' 

The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of 
ellipsis, in some particular cases. ' The land was always possessed, 
during pleasure, by those entrusted with the command ;' it should be, 
' those persons entrusted ;' or 'those who were entrusted.' 'If he had 
read further, he would have found several of his objections might have 
been spared ;' that is, ' he would have found that several of his objec- 
tions,' &c. ' I scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would 
yield more variety and use ;' it should be, c ivhich would yield,' &c. 'In 



ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, &C. 47 



the temper of mind he was then,' i. e. ' in which he then was.' ' The 
little satisfaction and consistency, to be found in most of the systems 
of divinity I have met with, made me betake myself to the sole reading 
of the scriptures ;' it ought to be, ' which are to be found,' and « which 
I have met with.' ' He desired they might go to the altar together, and 
jointly return their thanks to whom only they were due ;' i. e. Ho him 
to whom,' &c. 



OF TRANSPOSITION, OR INVERSION. 

There are two kinds of style — the natural, and the inverted, or trans- 
posed. 

A natural style is that in which the order of the words corresponds 
with the natural order of the ideas that compose the thoughts ; or to 
speak more clearly, that in which the words succeed each other in their 
natural order. 

An inverted or transposed style is that in which the words are thrown 
out of their natural order, for the sake of some superior beauty ; but it 
is seldom of advantage to invert the style, except in poetry. 

Examples. 

" Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring 
Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess sing." 
Natural Order. Heavenly goddess ! sing the wrath of Achilles, the 
<lireful spring of unnumbered woes to Greece. 

" No bounds the Almighty's glory can restrain, 
Nor time's dimensions terminate his reign ; 
At his reproof convulsive nature shakes, 
And shivering earth from its foundation quakes." 
Natural Order. No bounds can restrain the glory of the Almighty 
nor can the dimensions of time terminate his reign : convulsive nature 
shakes at his reproof, and shivering earth quakes from its foundation. 
" Men in adversity most plain appear, 
It shows us really what, and who they are ; 
Then from their lips truth undissembled flows, 
The mask falls off, and the just features shows." 
Natural Order. Men appear most plain in adversity, it shows us 
really what (they are) and who they are ; then, undissembled truth 
flows from their lips, the mask falls off, and shows the just features. 



48 EXERCISES 

Although a verb in the Infinitive Mood, is generally connected with 
a finite verb, yet, it may follow a Noun, Adjective, Participle, or almost 
any other part of speech. 

Examples. 

"I am about to give you a few examples, by way of illustration." 

" He is old enough to know better, than to spend his time in this 
manner." 

"He is anxious to secure the election of that candidate, because he 
knows him to be well qualified to fulfil the duties of the office." 

" Endeavouring to persuade us, he became quite warm in his argu- 
ment." 

" The definite article is frequently applied to adverbs of the compara- 
tive and superlative degrees, to mark the degrees more strongly. 

Examples. 

The more you study the faster you will learn. The sooner you go, 
the sooner you will return. 

The Indefinite article refers to a plural noun, when few, or the words 
great and many immediately precede the noun : as, a few trees — a 
great many houses. 

A FEW INSTANCES OF THE SAME WORD'S CONSTITU- 
TING SEVERAL OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

calm. Guilt often casts a damp over our 

Calm was the day, and the scene sprightly hours, 

delightful. Soft bodies damp the sound 

We may expect a calm after a much more than hard ones, 

storm. _ yet. 

To prevent passion, is easier They are yet young and must 

than to calm it. suspend their judgment for a while. 

little. Though she is rich and fair, yet 

Better is a little with content, sne i s not amiable, 
than a great deal with anxiety 

A little attention will rectify ■*■• 

some errors. Many persons are oetter than we 

The gay* and dissolute thinklit- suppose them to be. 

tie of the miseries which are steal- The few* and the many have 

ing softly after them. the J, r prepossessions. 

still. ^ ew ^ays P ass wltnout some 

Thouo-h he is out of danger, he clouds. 

is still afraid. MUCH * m \ 

He labored to still the tumuliu He has seen much of the world. 

Still waters are commonly deep- and been much caressed. ^ 

es t # Think much and speak little. 

DAMP . Much learning hath made thee 

Damp air is unwholesome. mad ! 



* An adjective with the definite article before it, becomes a noun, (of th< 
third person, pluial number,) and must be parsed as such, 



IN PARSING k,C. 



40 



MORE. 

His years are more than hers ; but 
he has not more knowledge. 

The more we are blessed, the 
more grateful we should be. 

The desire of getting more, is 
rarely satisfied. 

INFERIOR AND EQUAL. 

He has equal knowledge, but 
inferior judgment. 

She is his inferior in sense, but 
his equal in prudence. 

LIKE. 

Every being loves its like. 

We must make a like space 
between the lines. 

Behave like men. 

We are too apt to like perni- 
cious company. 

He may go or stay, as he likes. 

TO. 

They strive to learn. 
He goes to and fro.* 
To his wisdom we owe our 
privilege. 

The proportion ij ten to one. 

UTMOST. 

He has served them with his ut- 
most ability. 

When we do our utmost, no more 
13 required. 

FOR. 

I will submit, for I know that 
submission brings peace. 

It is for our health to be temper- 
ate. 

Oh ! for better times. 

I have a regard for him. 

BOTH. 

He is esteemed both on his own 
account, and on account of his pa- 
rents. 

Both of them deserve praise. 

YESTERDAY. 

Yesterday was a fine day. 
I rode out yesterday. 



TO-MORROW. 

To-morrow may be brighter 
than to-day. 

I shall write to-morrow. 

HAIL. 

We hail you as friends. 

Hail virtue ! source of every good. 

The hail was very destructive. 

THAT. 

An eclipse of the sun took place 
on that day. 

Why is our language less refined 
than ihatf- of France? 

I hope that we shall arrive in sea- 
son. 

He is the most generous person 
that ever lived. 

SINCE. 

I have not seen him since that 
time. 

I have seen your friend since I 
saw you. 

Let us return, since the affair can* 
not be settled. 

AS. 

As he passed along, his ears were 
delighted with the morning song of 
the birds of Paradise. 

As many as arrived in season, 
embarked free of expense. 

Such J as believe shall be saved, 
&c. 

We left them as we found them 

We will take the oath as soon as 
he arrives, 

BUT. 

The path of glory leads but to 
the grave. 

She is handsome, but she is not 
amiable. 

They asked nothing but their 
liberty. 

THAN. 

Man wants no more than may 
suffice. 

He is no more respected than his 
predecessor. 



# Two or more words, used to show the manner, time, or place, in 
which an action is performed, are called an Adverbial phrase. 

fWhen "that" is used instead of a noun, it is a demonstrative pronoun. 

Ms, when it follows such, and frequently when it follows same and 
many, becomes a relative pronoun. 
5* 



50 



EXERCISES 



WHAT. 

What was his conduct in his prse- 
torship here at home ? 

What man is so hardened as to 
deny these facts. 

What wise men are our council- 
lors ! 

What! are you here, already ! 

He extol what* she sees. 

What though in silence all move 
round this dark terrestrial ball, &c. 

I will try what virtue there is in 
stones. 

Come, I'll tell thee what . 

She knows not what colors are 
in fashion. 

What with hunger and what with 
fatigue, he was overcome. 



whatever; 

Whatever purifies, fortifies the 
heart. 

Whatever useful or engaging 
endowments we possess, virtue is 
requisite, in order to their sliming 
with proper lustre. 

Whatever they may say of me, I 
shall heed them not. 

whosoever. 

Whosoever shall receive this 
child in my name receiveth me ; 
and whosoever receiveth me recei- 
veth him that sent me. 

Whomsoever I shall kiss, the 
same is he . 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES TO BE PARSED. 



I would rather be myself f the 
slave and wear the chains, than 
fasten them on him. 

Rex and Tyranus are of very 
different characters. Onei rules 
his people by laws to which they 
consent; the other]: by his absolute 
will and power ; that || is called free- 
dom, || this, tyranny. 

Pie was laughed at by his com- 
panions, and talked of by all who 
knew him. 

He rose and rebuked the winds, 
and said unto the sea, peace, be 
still. 

I will give you a solution of the 
comma, and, and it. 

Why make ye this ado ? the dam- 
sel is not dead but sleepeth. 

Who do men say that I am ? 



To live long, ought not to be your 
favorite wish, so much as to live 
well. 

The weather is much too warm 
for comfort. 

The plank is one inch too thick. 

I wish to have the servant, come 
hither. 

Give us this day our daily bread. 

What do people say it is ? 

They were spoken to respecting 
that subject. 

They cried, away with him! 

Mine is by yours . 

Desire, not reason, will be the 
ruling principle of our conduct. 

He has gone a hunting, and he 
will walk many miles. 

The man being dismissed from 
office, his family suffered. 



*What is a compound pronoun, including both the antecedent and the 
relative, and is equivalent to that and which — He extols that which he sees. 
That is a demonstrative pronoun , of the third person singular number, in 
the objective case, and is governed by extols. Which, is a relative pronoun, 
of the third person, singular number, in the objective case, and is governed 
by sees (agreeing with that for its antecedent.) 

•{■The words myself, himself, ourselves, themselves, fyc. are called com- 
pound personal pronouns. 

£When the words some, one, any, other, all, such, are not prefixed to 
nouns, expressed or understood, they are called indefinite pronouns. 

Ij When the words this, that, these, those, former and latter, stand for nouns, 
they are demonstrative pronouns. 



IN PARSING, &C. 



51 



The boy's being confined, was a 
grief to his parents. 

Ye are one another's joy. Be 
ye helpers one of another. 

They love each other. 

Whom do you imagine it to 
have been ? 

What sculpture is to a block of 
marble, education is to the human 
soul. 

If thine enemy be hungry, give 
him bread to eat ; if he be thirsty, 
give him water to drink. 

One danced, another ran to and 
fro. 

Sitting is the best posture for 
deliberation ; standing, for per- 
suasion. A judge, thercfore,should 
speak sitting ; a pleader, standing. 

What is the bigot's torch, the ty- 
rant's chain ! 

Fathers ! Senators of Rome ! 
the Arbiters of nations ! to you I 
fly for refuge. 

I d"> not care a sixpence wheth- 
er he is wet or dry. 

On the same night he dreamed a 
dream. 

The ship is arrived and her car- 
go will be discharged immediately. 

Properly speaking, there are but 
two genders. 

There being much obscurity in 
the case, he refuses to decide up- 
on it. 

Junius Brutus, the sen ofMarcus 
Brutus, and Collatinus, the hus- 
band of Lucretia, were chosen 
first consuls in Rome. 

To learn is our duty. 

In order to become a grammari- 
an, I must study with diligence. 

I have some recollection of my 
father's being a judge. 

They rode for two days together. 

He called the company, man by 
man. 

He began to speak unto them in 
parables. 

And he said unto them, exact no 
more than that which is appointed 
you. 

I will go while you stay. 



It is not possible to act other- 
wise, considering the weakness of 
our nature, 

Israel burned none, save Hazor 
only. 

There was more than a hundred 
and fifty thousand pounds sterling. 

Bonaparte lost the battle of Wa- 
terloo. 

He looked, and beheld the bush 
burned with fire, and the bush was 
not consumed. 

Two and three make five. 

Celadon and Amelia were a 
matchless pair. 

Charcoal, sulphur, and nitre make 
gun-powder. 

I told the person who painted 
my house to put on a good coat of 
white lead. 

He took off his hat and put on 
his wig. 

Catiline, the leader and contri- 
ver of the plot, was there. 

He proved himself a Roman cit- 
izen. 

Nero rendered himself a detes- 
table tyrant. 

He grew up an excellent schol- 
ar. 

Greece, which had submitted 
to the arms, hi her turn, subdued 
the understandings of the Romans, 
and contrary to that which in 
these cases commonly happens, 
the conquerors adopted the opin- 
ions and manners of the conquer- 
ed. 

Many idle persons sleep them- 
selves into a kind of unnatural 
stupidity, as topers drink them- 
selves drunk. The child slept it- 
self quiet. 

The sycophant bowed and smiled 
himself into favor at court. 

She smiled her cares away. 

The horse ran himself to death. 

The profligate runs a dreadful 
career. 

The distance was seven miles, 
and he ran it in twenty minutes. 
He outran all his competitors. 

The writer writes a writing, on 



52 EXERCISES 

writing paper; when he has done They went their ways, one to his 

writing the writing, the writing pa- farm, another to his merchandize, 

per is written, or becomes written You, or he, or I, must attend to 

paper. this affair. 

Caroline would be very happy, Read, not to contradict or con- 

if she could have her wish. fute ; nor to believe and take for 

He confessed himself a thief. granted ; but to weigh and consider. 

The duke made himself king. Ask, and it shall be given you ; 

And all mine are thine, and thine seek, and ye shall find ; knock, and 

are mine ; and I am glorified in it shall be opened unto you. 

thee. ■ The two houses will have finish- 

If I could live my life over again, ed their business, when the king 

I would try to employ it to better comes to prorogue them, 

advantage. You ought to have the work 

The lowing herd wind slowly prepared in season, 
o'er the lea. 

O'er hills and dales they wend 
their way. 

AGE. 

The minds of the aged are like the tombs which they are approach- 
ing; where though the brass and the marble remain, yet the inscriptions 
are effaced by time, and the imagery has mouldered away. 

HONOR. 

Would you not think it an honor to be employed by God in creating a 
world ? Would you not think it an honor to be employed by him in pre- 
serving and governing a world ? But greater, far greater is the honor of 
being employed as a co-worker with God in saving a world. This hon- 
or have all his saints. This honor we are invited to share. Payson. 
scripture. 

From the antiquity of our translation of the Bible, there is often a 
quaintness in its expressions, and their introduction may give a point to 
some satirical remark, or furnish a striking form for some sally of wit. 
But we should beware. Scripture is a pure stream, flowing forth from 
the throne of God, and it should never be made to reflect the fantastic 
images of human folly. Newman. 

THOUGHT. 

What is thought ? It is an emanation from Deity. It is at once, the 
fear and joy of youth — the solace of retirement — the companion of age 
— and the telegraph of worlds. Though its first dawning in the infant 
mind, is faint and uncertain, yet like the rays that gild the early morn, or 
the first flashes of the young borealis, it gives promise of comingbright- 
ness. Subtle in is essence, mysterious and uncontrolable in its flight, 
— it rises from the minutest object and encircles empires. Again it 
rises, — expands — and wings its silent, rapid way, from star to star — 
from sun to sun ; — still rising — still expanding, it reaches the court of 
Heaven— the throne of God — and embraces the Universe ! J. Dom . 

KNOWLEDGE. 

Pleasure is a shadow ; wealth is vanity ; and power a pageant ; but 
knowledge is extatic in enjoyment, perennial in fame, unlimited in 



IN PARSING, &iC. 53 

space, and infinite in duration. In the performance of its sacred offices 
it fears no danger, spares no expense, omits no exertion. It scales the 
mountain, looks into the volcano, dives into the ocean, perforates the 
earth, wings its flight into the skies, encircles the globe, explores sea 
and land, contemplates the distant, examines the minute, comprehends 
the great, ascends to the sublime — noplace too remote for its grasp — 
no heavens too exalted for its reach. De Witt Clinton. 

A C03IIC ANNUAL. 

Each exquisite essay, fraught with finely jFm-ished fancyings, forces 
the full fountain of flushed feeling to overflow with fun. Genuine 
genius has here had her holiday, and the hitherto, incomparable image- 
ry of the immortal Cruikshanks, is immeasurably outdone by the in- 
imitable imaginings of the jolly Johnson. Knaves and knowing ones, 
lads and lasses, march to the magical music of this merry master. No 
novelty ever before offered, was so playful, polished and pungent. 



LANGUAGE. 

And what is language ? Language is the power 

Whereby, as with the arrowy light of Him, 

The broad brave sun that flashes through the sky 

Uninterrupted glory, Thought goes forth. 

From mind to mind, flash after flash forever: 

At first a little fountain bubbled up, 

Within the desert or the wilderness, 

The outlet to a mine of wealth — of power, 

Ten thousand times more precious than the earth, 

Glittering with diamonds or charged with ore 

That man, short-sighted man would perish for — 

A treasury of thought and speech-: anon, 

It filtered forth and roiled away a brook — 

A streamlet then — a river — then a sea — 

Behold it now ! It overspreads the earth. 

Still, what is language? Wouldst thou know in truth? 

Forsake thy native land; go forth alone, 

" AH, ail alone," where thy dear mother-tongue 

Would not avail thee, though thy lips were parched 

With mortal fever, though thy heart were wrung 

With mortal anguish; put forth all thy power, 

By signs and looks, drop tears and utter cries, 

i\.nd see how very helpless man may be, 

The mightiest man that sways it o'er the earth, 

For want of language. Art thou ansAvered now ? 

Still, what is language ? Language is the power, 

The everlasting omnipresent power, 

Whereby man holds communion with his God, — 

Wherewith he does imperishable things: 

By it mankind perpetuate their strength, 

Their wisdom and their virtue, yea, and all 

Their mighty fathers ever thought or did, 



54 



EXERCISES 



Or ever knew ; by pouring forth for aye, 

Into the stream of knowledge, flowing on 

Forever and forever, all that they 

Have had bequeathed them here, and all that they 

Would leave to others — all that they have known 

By language only, that mysterious power, 

Which cannot be described but by itself, 

So like it is to Deity. Neal. 

OF THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The same preposition, generally speaking, should follow a noun, or an 
adjective, as would properly follow the verb from which the noun, or ad- 
jective is derived. 



Acquit, 
Accuse, 
Abhorrence, 

Agreeable, 

Averse, 

Adapted, 

Brag, 



require of. 



require to. 



require of. 



require in. 



require in. 



require to. 



Boast, 

Bestow requires upon. 
Contend requires for or with. 
Confide, 
Conversant, 

Call requires on. 

Consonant, 

Conformable, 

Correspondent, 

Caution requires against. 
Compliance requires with. 
Divide requires into. 

Diminution, 
Disapprove, 

Differ, 

Derogation, ^ require from 

Dissent, 



> require of. 



; 



Dependant requires upon. 
Discouragement requires to. 
Disappointment requires in or of. 
Enter requires in or into. 

Engaged, 
Eager, 

Exception requires from. 
Expert requires in or at. 
Founded requires on. 
Glad requires of or at. 
Insist requires upon. 
Martyr requires for. 
Need requires of. 
Observance requires of. 
Profit requires by. 
Prejudice requires against. 
Provide requires with. 
Prevail requires over. 
Reduce requires under or to. 
Replete requires with. 
Resemblance requires to. 
Swerve requires from. 
Think requires of or on. 
Taste requires of or for. 
True requires to. 
Wait requires on. 



OF THE IMPROPER USE OF WORDS AND PHRASES. 

The phrases more perfect andmost perfect, are improper; because per- 
fection admits of no degrees of comparison. We may say nearer or near- 
est to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 



IN SYNTAX, &C. 55 

When the comparative degree of an adjective is used, the latter term 
of comparison should not include the former. It is, therefore, improper 
to say "the scriptures are more valuable than any writings ;" we should 
say, " than any other writings." 

When the superlative degree of an adjective is used, the latter term 
of comparison should never exclude the former. Therefore, instead ot 
saying "profane swearing is, of all other vices the most inexcusable ;" 
we should say, "of all vices," &c. 

Farther applies to place and distance ; and further to quantity or ad- 
dition. 

Later or latter cannot be used indifferently with propriety ; latter refers 
to place ; later respects time only. 

The phrase " seldom or ever" is improper ; we should^ither say, " sel- 
dom if ever" — or "seldom or never." 

"I had rather," is often improperly used, instead of "I would rather." 

To lay (to place something) in the present tense, is properly written 
lay, in the imperfect laid; the perfect participle is also laid. To lie 
(down) is lie in the present tense, lay in the imperfect, and lain in the 
perfect participle. Lie is conjugated regularly when it means to tell 
a falsehood ; as " he lied" — "he has lied." 

Set is an intransitive verb in some senses, which makes it proper to 
say, " To set out on a journey ; to set up in business ; the sun sets, and 
fair weather has set in." 

The following are examples of mistakes in the use of the transitive 
verbs lay and set ; and of the intransitive verbs lie and sit, with the cor- 
rection after each. 

"He lays in bed too long" — (lies.) "I have a work laying by me' 

— (liting.) "Go and lay down" — (lie.) "I laid and slept an hour'' 

— (lay.) "I was laying on the grass'' 1 — (liting.) "He has laid there 

a long time" — (lain.) "He has lain himself down to rest" — (laid.) 

" Let me set down" — (sit.) " I afterwards went and set down" — 

(sat.) " He sat himself down" — (set.) " The hen is setting on her 

eggs" — (sitting.) " The wind sits in the east" — (sets.) 

The verb to learn, is never used transitively, except when it has for 
its subject the person who obtains the knowledge, or information, and 
for its only object the knowledge, cr information obtained. It is proper 
to say, " I am learning grammar ;" but improper to say, " the master 
learns me grammar," instead of teaches me ; or ' learn me to do that,'' 
instead of teach me. 

Tautology, which means the repeating of a word, or an idea that 
has been fully expressed before, is a frequent error in composition. 

The verb to return, signifies to go, or come back ; go, or come again; 
yet, we sometimes hear, and read the phrases, return hack — and re- 
urn again — and even return hack again. 



56 EXERCISES 

To converse means to talk together^ therefore it is wrong to say, " they 
are conversing together" 

To fall in eludes the idea of down, as to rise does that ofup; for we 
cannot say to fall up, or to rise doivn. It is, therefore, improper, because 
it is unnecessary, to say fall down, or rise up. 

The adjective mutual, includes the meaning of the words, each other, 
or one another ; therefore it is wrong to say, " They bear a mutual like- 
ness to each other" 

" To enter," means to go for come) in ; therefore we should not say, 
" enter in" 

Restore means to give back ; therefore it is wrong to say of a thing 
" I restore it back, or again," &c. 

The phrases, frsl of all, last of all, axe improper; one of the things 
mentioned, or attended to, cannot befrst, if any ofthe others are before 
it ; and certainly, if a thing is not lost of all, it cannot be the last. 

It is wrong to use both, when the two things under consideration, 
have been expressly named ; as, "I took some wine, and some water, 
and mixed them both together." "I saw two chairs fastened bothiogeth- 
er." " My brother called on me, and we both took a walk." 

Throughout expresses the idea of through all, or through every part ; 
we should not say, therefore, " I searched all the country throughout," 
or, " We found these sentiments throughout the whole book." 

" In ihe expression I have just now written," the adverb no iv is re- 
dundant, and ought to be expunged. 

UNGRAMMATICAL WORDS AND PHRASES CORRECTED. 

UNGRAMMATICAL. CORRECTED. 

He only spoke three words. He spoke only three words. 

He is seldom or ever right. He is seldom if ever right. 

He said how that he would go. He said that he would go. 
They never will believe but what I They never will believe but that I 

am to blame. am to blame. 

Be it never so true. Be it ever so true. 

Where are you going ? Whither are you going ? 

Are you travelling there ? Are you travelling thither ? 

I have not hearn the story. I have not heard the story. 

I catched cold last evening. I caught cold last evening. 

They rode in a horse and chay. They rode in a one-horse chaise. 

Who did you speak to ? To whom did you speak ? 

Was I an officer, &c. Were I an officer, &c. 

He has got it. He has it. 

Who find him in money ? Who finds him money ? 

He put money in his pocket. He put money into his pocket. 



IN SYNTAX, he. 



57 



The report was founded in truth. 
This house is to let. 
I shall call upon him. 
Is the gentleman in ? 
He covered it over. 
If I had have known it earlier. 
Frequent opportunity. 
He hadn't ought to do it. 
He killed them dead. 
Give me them books. 
The villain was hung. 
He mentioned it over again. 
I done it myself. 
I have eat heartily. 
It lays on the table. 
He is laying down. 
He is quite the gentleman. 
He seed him afore. 
The fields are overflown. 
Overseer over his house. 
Opposite the church. 
This here. 
That there. 
I ari't cold. 
We wer'nt there. 
He came in town this morning. 
Whether he will or no. 
We go to church for to worship. 
I cannot by no means allow it. 
All over the country. 
Be that as it will. 
He answered and said. 
He knows nothing on it. 
They both met together. 
I had rather not. 
Says I. 

He is one of my acquaintance. 
I intended to have rewarded him. 
6 



The report was founded on truth. 

This house is to be let. 

I shall call on him. 

Is the gentleman within ? 

He covered it. 

If I had known it earlier. 

Frequent opportunities. 

He ought not to do it. 

He killed them. 

Give me those books. 

The villain was hanged. 

He mentioned it again. 

I did it myself. 

I have eaten heartily. 

It lies on the table. 

He is lying down. 

He is a gentleman. 

He saw him before. 

The fields are overflowed. 

Overseer of his house. 

Opposite to the church. 

This. 

That. 

I am not cold. 

We were not there. 

He came into town this morning. 

Whether he will or not. 

We go to church to worship. 

I can by no means allow it. 

Over all the country. 

Be that as it may. 

He answered. 

He knows nothing of it. 

They met. 

I would rather not. 

Said I. 

He is one of my acquaintances. 

I intended to reward him. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Etymology (1) treats of the different sorts of words, their various 
modifications, and their derivations. 

Etymology is compounded of two Greek words, which signify origin and word. It means 
literally the derivation of a word from its original. 

There (2) are, in English, ten sorts of words, or, as they are com- 
monly called, parts of speech ; namely, the Noun, the Adjective, the 
Article, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Pronoun, the Con- 
junction, the Preposition, and the Interjection. 

OF NOUNS. 
A Noun (3) is the name of any thing that we can see, taste, hear T 
smell, feel, or conceive of ; as, man, wine, virtue. 

The word Noun, is derived from the Latin word nomen, which signifies a name. 

Nouns are (4) divided into proper and common. 

Proper (&) nouns are the names appropriated to individuals ; as, 
George, London, Thames. 

Common (e) nouns stand for a whole species, class or kind, whether 
the class consists of one, or more individuals ; as, animal, man, tree, &c. 
The General is the Washington of the age. 

When (7) proper nouns or names, have an article prefixed to them, 
they are used as common names ; as, " He is the Cicero of his age ;' r 
" He is reading the lives of the Twelve Casars" 



QUESTIONS. 

(1) What does Etymology treat of ?— (2) How many sorts of words are there?— (3) 
What is a noun?— (4) How are nouns divided ?— (5) What is a proper noun ?— (6) Wuat 
do common nouns stand for?— (7) When proper nouns have an article prefixed, how are 
they used ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

Common (i) names may also be used to signify individuals, by the 
addition Qf articles or pronouns ; as, " The boy is studious ; that girl is 
discreet."* 

Nouns (2) have four properties ; namely, Person, Number, Gender, 
and Case, 

Of Person. 

Person (3) i? that quality of the noun, (or pronoun) which modifies the 
verb. 

There are (4) three persons ; namely, the First, Second, and Third. 

The (5) first person denotes the speaker — the second, the person 
spoken to — and the third, the person or the thing spoken of. 

Of Number. 

Number (e) is the consideration of an object, as one or more. 

Nouns (7) are of two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

The (8) singular number expresses but one object ; as a chair, a 
table. 

The (9) plural number signifies more objects than one ; as chairs, ta- 
bles. 

Some (10) nouns, from the nature of the things which they express, 
are used only in the singular form ; as, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, 
&c. ; others, only in the plural form ; as (n) bellows, scissors, lungs, 
riches, &c. 

Some (12) words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine, 
&c. 

The (13) plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s to 
the singular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces, thought, thoughts. But (h) 
when the noun singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the 
plural ; as, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes : kiss, kisses ; 
rebus, rebusses. If the singular (15) ends in ch hard, the plural is form- 
ed by adding s ; as , monarch, monarchs ; distich, distichs. 

Nouns (ie) which end in 0, have sometimes, es, added to the plural ; 
as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo ; and some- 
times only s as folio, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio. 

QUESTIONS. 

/ 1) Can common names be used to signify individuals? — (2) How many properties havo 
nouns ?— (3) What is person ? — (4) How many persons are there?— (5) What does each 
person denxtf ? — (6) What is number ? — (7) How many numbers are there ?— (8) What 
does the singular number express?— (9) What does the plural number signify? — (10) 
Give examples of nouns used only in the singular form ?— (ll) Give examples of nouns 
used only in the plural form? — (12) Give examples of words having the same form in 
both Lumbers ? — (1C) How is the plural number of nouns generally formed?— (14) How 
is the plural number formed of such nouns as end in x, ch soft, ss, or s, in the singular?--^ 
(15) If the singular ends in ch hard, how is the plural lormed?--(l6) How do nouns end- 
ing in <?, form their plurals ? 

* Nouns may also be divided into the following classes ; Collective 
nouns, or nouns of multitude ; as, the people, the parliament, the army ; 
Abstract nouns, or the names of qualities abstracted from their substan- 
ces ; as, knowledge, goodness, whiteness ; Verbal or participal nouns ; 
as, beginning, reading, writing. 

The Eng-lish language contains in all about forty thousand words, 



60 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Nouns (1) ending in/, or fe, are rendered plural by the change of 
those terminations into ves ; as loaf, loaves ; half, halves ; wife, wives ; 
except grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form the plural 
by the addition of s. Those which end in^f, have the regular plural ; 
as, ruff, ruffs ; except, staff, staves. 

Nouns (2) which have y in the singular, with no other vowel in the 
same syllable, change it into res, in the plural ; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, 
flies. But the y is not changed, when there is another vowel in the 
syllable ; as, key, keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 

Some (3) nouns become plural by changing the a of the singular into 
e ; as man, men ; woman, women ; alderman, aldermen. The words, ox 
and (4) child, form oxen and children ; brother, makes either brothers 
or brethren. Sometimes (5) the dipthong 00 is changed into ee in the 
plural ; as, foot, feet ; goose, geese; tooth, teeth. Louse and mouse 
make lice and mice. Penny makes pence, or pennies, when the coin is 
meant; die, dice (for play ;) die, (dies for coining.) 

It is agreeable (e) to analogy, and the practice of the generality of 
correct writers, to construe the following words as plural nouns ; pains, 
riches, alms ; and also, mathematics, metaphysics, politics, ethicts, optics, 
pneumatics, with other similar names of sciences. 

The word (7) news is now almost universally considered as belonging 
to the singular number. 

The (s) noun means is used both in the singular and the plural number. 

The following words, which have been adopted from the Hebrew, 
Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distinguished, with respect to 
number. 

Singular. 
Datum, 



Singular. 
Cherub, 
Seraph, 
Antithesis, 
Automaton, 
Basis, 
Crisis, 
Criterion, 
Diaeresis, 
Ellipsis, 
Emphasis, 
Hypothesis, 
Metamorphosis, 
Phaenomenon, 

Appendix, 



Plural. 
(9) Cherubim, 
Seraphim, 
Antitheses, 
Automata, 
Bases, 
Crises, 
Criteria, 
Diaereses, . 
Ellipses, 
Emphases, 
Hypotheses, 
Metamorphoses, 
Pbsenomena, 
Appendices, or 
Appendixes, 



Plural. 



Data, 



Effluvium, 


Effluvia, 


Encomium, 


< Encomia, or 
( Encomiums, 


Erratum, 


Errata, 


Genius,* 


Genii,* 


Genus, 


Genera, 


Index,f 


< Indices, or 
I Indexes,f 


Lamina, 


Laminae, 


Medium, 


Media, 


Magus, 


Magi, 


Memoran- 


^ Memoranda, or 
I Memorandums, 


dum, 


Radius, 


Radii. 



QUESTIONS. 

(1) How are nouns ending in/, or fe, rendered plu'-al ? — (2) How do nouns ending in 
y in the singular, form their plurals ?— (3) What nours form their plurals by changing a 
into e ?— (4) How is the plural of the words child, ox, and brother, formed ? — (5) What 
nouns form their plurals by changing the dipthong on into?/? — (6) How are the nouns, 
pains, riches, alms, mathematics, &.c. construed ?— (7) Of what number is news ?— (8) Of 
■what number is means considered ? — (9) What is the plural of Cherub ?— Repeat the plu- 
ral of each word in the table of Greek and Latin words. 

* Genii, when denoting aerial spirits ; Geniuses, when signifying per- 
sons of genius. 

f Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents- Indices. 
when referring to algebraic quantities. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



61 



Arcanum, 

Axis, 

Calx, 



Arcana, 

Axes, 
Calces, 



Stamen, 
Stratum, 
Vortex, 



Stamina, 

Strata, 

Vortices. 



Some words, derived from learned languages, are confined to the 
plural number ; as, (i) antipodes, credenda, literati, minutiae. 

The following (2) nouns being in Latin, both singular and plural arc 
used in the same manner when adopted into our tongue ; hiatus, appa- 
ratus, series, species. 

Of Gender. 

Gender (3) is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. (4) There 
are three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

The (5) Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male kind: as, a 
man, a horse, a bull. 

The Feminine Gender signifies animals of the female kind : as a wo- 
man, a duck, a hen. 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither males nor fe- 
males : as, a field, a house, a garden. 

Some (e) nouns naturally nenter, are, by a figure of speech, converted 
into the masculine or feminine gender: as, when we say of the sun, he is 
setting ; and of a ship, she sails well. ■ 

The (7) English language has three methods of distinguishing the sex, 



1. By different words ; as, 



Male. 

Bachelor, 

Boar, 

Boy, 

Brother, 

Buck, 



Female. 

Maid, 

Sow, 

Girl, 

Sister, 

Doe, 



Male. 

Husband, 
King, 
Lad, 
Lord, 

Man, 



Female. 

Wife, 

Queen, 

Lass, 

Lady, 

Woman. 



Male. 

Abbot, 

Actor, 

Administrator, 

Adulterer, 

Ambassador, 

Arbiter, 

Baron, 

Bridegroom, 

Benefactor, 



2. By a difference of termination : as, 

Male. 



Female. 

Abbess, 

Actress, 

Administratrix, 

Adultress, 

Ambassadress, 

Arbitress, 

Baroness, 

Bride, 

Benefactress, 



.Landgrave, 

Lion, 

Marquis, 

Master, 

Mayor, 

Patron, 

Peer, 

Poet, 

Priest, 



QUESTIONS. 



Female. 

Landgravine, 

Lioness, 

Marchioness, 

Mistress, 

Mayoress, 

Patroness, 

Peeress. 

Poetess, 

Priestess. 



i»!?-,?/r^, at numher , are ant }Podes, credenda, literati, and minvta considered ?— (2) 

s Gender?— (4) How zunny 

Are nouns naturally neuter 

r methods are there in English 

mles " f "■"'*• 

6* 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being- prefixed to the noun ; as., 

A cock-sparrow, A hen-sparrow, 

A man-servant, A maid-servant, 

A he-goat, A she goat, 

A he-bear, A she -bear, 

A male child, A female child, 

Male descendants, Female descendants. 

_ It sometimes happens that the same noun is either masculine or femi- 
nine. (1) The words parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, servant, and 
several others, are used indifferently for males or females. 

Of Case. 

Case (2) is the condition or situation of the noun, in relation to other 
words in a sentence. 

In English (3) nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, 
and the objective.* 

The nominative (4) case simply expresses the name of a thing or the 
subject of a verb ; as, "The boy plays ;" "The girls learn." 

The possessive case expresses the relation ofproperty or possession ; 
and has an apostrophe with the letter s coming after it ; as, " The schol- 
ar's duty ;" " My father's house." 

When (5) the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but the apostro- 
phe is retained; as, "On eagles' wings;" "The drapers' company." 

Sometimes, (6) also, when the singular terminates in ss, the apostro- 
phics is not added; as, "For goodness' sake;" " For righteousness' 
sake." 

The (7) objective case expresses the object of an action, or of a rela- 
tion ; and generally folloAvs a verb transitive, or a participle, or a pre- 
position ; as, " John assists Charles ;" " They live in London." 

Nouns (s) are declined in the following manner: 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative Case, A mother, Mothers, 

Posselmm Case, A mother's, Mothers', 

Objective Case, A mother, Mothers. 

Nominative 6ase, The man, The men, 

Possessive Case, The man's, The men's, 

Objective Case, The man, The men. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How are the nouns -parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, and servaiit, used? — 
(2) Whal is case?— (3) How many cases are there ?— (4) Give a definition of the nomin- 
ative and possessive.— (5) How is the possessive case formed, when the nominative ends 
in s .? — (6) How is it formed when the noun ends in ss ? — (7) What does the objective 
case express ? — (8) How are nouns declined ? 

*The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case ; and the 
objective, the accusative. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 



OF ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective (1) is a word added to a noun, or a pronoun, to express 
some quality, or circumstance of the thing for which the noun or pronoun 
stands ; as, " An industrious man ;" " A virtuous woman ;" " He is good." 

In English, (2) the adjective is not varied on account of gender, num- 
ber, or case. Thus we say, " A Careless boy ; careless girls." 

The only variation (3) which it admits, is that of the degrees of com- 
parison. 

There are (4) commonly reckoned three degrees of comparison ; the 
Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive State (5) expresses the quality of an object, without any 
increase or diminution ; as, good, wise, great. 

The Comparative Degree (g) increases or lessens the positive in sig- 
nification ; as, wiser, greater, less wise. 

The Superlative Degree (-) increases or lessens the positive to the 
highest or lowest degree ; as, wisest, greatest, least wise. 

The simple word, (s) or positive, becomes the comparative, by adding 
>-, or er ; and the superlative by adding st, or est, to the end of it ; as, wise, 
wiser, wisest ; great, greater, greatest. And the adverbs more zndmost, 
placed before the adjective, have the same effect; as, wise, more wise, 
most wise. 

The termination (9) ish, may be accounted in some sort a degree of 
comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the positive; 
as, black, blackish, or tending to blackness ; salt, saltish, or having a 
little taste of salt. 

The word rather (10) is very properly used to express a small degree 
or excess of a quality ; as, "She is rather profuse in her expenses." 

Monosyllables, (u) for the most part, are compared by er and est ; and 
dissyllables by more and most; as, mild, milder, mildest; frugal, more 
frugal, most frugal. Dissyllables ending in y ; as, happy, lovely ; and 
in le after a mute, as able, ample ; or accented on the last syllable, as, 
discreet, polite ; easily admit of er and est ; as, happier, happiest ; abler, 
ablest ; politer, politest. Words of more than two syllables hardly ev- 
er admit of those terminations. 

In some words, (12) the superlative is formed by adding the adverb 
most to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, or utmost, under- 
most, uppermost, foremost. 

In English, as in most languages, there are some-words of very com- 
mon use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of an- 
alogy,) that are irregular in this respect ; as, (13) " good, better, best; bad, 

QUESTIONS. 

(l) What is nn Adjective? — (2) Ave adjectives varied tin account of person, number, 
&c. ? — (3) What variations have they ?— (4) How many degrees of comparison are there? 
(5; What does the positive state express ?— (6) What does the comparative degree express ? 
(7) What does the superlative decree express ?— (2) How does the simple word, or positive, 
become the comparative?— (9) What effect does the termination j'sAhavc? — (10) How is 
the word rather used?— (11) How are monosyllables compared? — (12) What words are 
compared by adding the adverb most to the end of ihem 7— (13) Compare the adjective good, 
bad, little, much, near, late and old. 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much or many, more, most ; near, 
nearer, nearest or next; late, later, latest or last ; old, older or elder, 
oldest or eldest ;" and a few others. 

An adjective (1) put Avithout a noun, with the definite article before 
it, becomes a noun in sense and meaning-, and is written as a noun ; as, 
" Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad." 

Various nouns (2) placed before other nouns assume the nature 
of adjectives ; as sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow ground, &c. ■ 

Numeral adjectives (3) are either cardinal, or ordinal ; cardinal, as, 
one, two, three, &c. ; ordinal, as, first, second, third, &c. 

OF ARTICLES. 

An Article (4) is a word prefixed to nouns, and pronouns, to limit 
their signification. 

Articles are so called from the Latin word articxdus, signifying a joint, or a very 
small part. 

In English (a) there are but two articles, an and the ; an becomes a 
when the following word begins with a consonant sound; as, a hand, a 
heart, a highway. But when the following word begins with a vowel 
sound an is used ; as, an acorn, an hour. 

An or a {&) is styled the indefinite article ; it is used in a vague 
sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects inde- 
terminate ; as, " Give me a book ;" " Bring me an apple." 

The (7) is called the definite article ; because it ascertains what par- 
ticular thing or things are meant; as, "Give me the book;" "Bring me 
the apples ;" meaning some book, or apples, referred to. 

A noun without any article to limit it, is generally taken in its widest 
sense ; as, " A candid temper is proper for man ;" that is, for all man- 
kind. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be seen in the 
following examples ; "The son of a king— the son of the king — a son 
of the king." Each of these three phrases has an entirely different 
meaning, through the different, applications of the articles a and the. 

The article (s) is omitted before nouns that imp]y the different virtues, 
vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c; as, "prudence 
is commendable ; falsehood is odious ; anger ought to be avoided ;" &c. 
It is not prefixed to a proper name ; as, " Alexander," (because that of 
itself denotes a determinate individual or particular thing,) except for the 
sake of distinguishing a particular family ; as, " He is a Howard, or of the 
family of the Howards ;" or by way of eminence ; as, "Every man is not 
a Newton £' " He has the courage of an Achilles ;" or when some noun is 
understood ; " He sailed down the (river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia." 

The indefinite (9) article can be joined to nouns in the singular num- 
ber only ; (10) the definite article may be joined to plurals, as well as 
singulars. 

QUESTIONS. 

(0 How is an adjective without the definite article before it, used ? — (2) Do nouns be- 
come adjectives ?— (3) How are numeral adj* etives divided ?— (4) What is an article? — 
(5) How many articles are there?— (6) Which is stj led the indefinite article?— (7) Which 
is called the definite article?— (8) Before what class of nouns are the articles omitted?— (9) 
How is the indefinite article used ? — ( 10) How is the definite used ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

But there (1) appears to be a remarkable exception to this rule, in 
the use of the adjectives/ew and mSiy, (the latter chiefly with the word 
great before it,) which, though joined with plural nouns, yet admit of 
the singular article a; as, a few men ; a great many men. 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the article has in 
these phrases ; it means a small or great number collectively taken, 
and therefore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of unity. Thus like- 
wise, a dozen, a score, a hundred, or a thousand, is one whole number, 
an aggregate of many collectively taken ; and therefore still retains the 
article a, though joined as an adjective to a plural substantive ; as, a 
hundred years, &c. 

The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjective 
many , and a singular noun ; as, 

" Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 
The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear; 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 

In these lines, the phrases, many a gem and many a flower, refer to 
many gems and many flowers, separately, not collectively considered. 

The definite (2) article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the 
comparative and superlative degree ; and its (3) effect is, to mark the 
degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely ; as, " The 
more I examine it, the better I like it. I like this the least of any." 

OF VERBS. 
A Verb (4) is a word which signifies action, being, or suffering. 

Verb is derived from the Latin verbum, which signifies a word. 

Verbs (5) are divided into three sorts, namely, Active, Neuter, and 
Passive. 

Active verbs are also divided into Transitive, and Intransitive. 

A transitive verb (6) expresses an action which affects an object ; as, 
"The teacher instructs his pupils," 

An intransitive verb (7) expresses an action confined to the actor ; 
as, "The bird flies swiftly." 

A neuter verb (s) expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or 
a state of being. 

A passive verb (9) expresses a passion or a suffering, or the receiv- 
ing of an action. — (See page 41.) 



QUESTIONS. 

(1) What exceptions are (hpre? — (2) Is the definite article ever applied to advprhs ?— 
(3) What is its edict?— (4) Wbatis a Verb?— (5) Into how many sorts are verbs divid- 
ed?~(S) What does a transitive verb express ?— -(7) What does an intransitive verb ex- 
oress ? — ( /i) What does a neuter verb express ? — (9) What does a passive verb express 7 



66 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Many verbs (1) are used both in a transitive, and in an intransitive 
signification ; the construction determining- of what kind they are ; as, 
to flatten, signifying to make even or level, is a transitive verb ;but, when 
it signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is an intransitive verb. 

An intransitive verb, (2) by the addition of a, preposition, may become 
a compound transitive verb. To smile is an intransitive verb, but to 
smile on is a compound transitive verb ; therefore we properly say " He 
was smiled on by fortune" — " She smiled on him." 

Auxiliary (3) or helping verbs, are those by the help of which the 
principal verbs are conjugated. They are, do, be, have, shall, will,may, 
can, with their variations ; and must, which has no variation. 

Of Mood. 

Mood or Mode, (4) is a particular form of the verb, showing the 
manner in which the being, action, or passion, is represented. 

Mood consists in the change which the verb undergoes, to signify 
various intentions of the mind, and various modifications and circum- 
stances of action. 

There (5) are five moods of verbs, namely, the Indicative, the Sub- 
junctive, the Potential, the Infinitive, and the Imperative. 

The Indicative Mood (e) simply indicates or declares a thing ; as, 
" He loves, he is loved ;" or it asks a question ; as, " Does he love ?" 
"Is he loved?" 

The subjunctive Mood (7) represents a thing under a condition, 
motive, wish, supposition, &c. ; and is preceded by a conjunction, ex- 
pressed or understood, and attended by another verb ; as, " I will re- 
spect him, though he chide me." 

The Potential Mood (s) implies possibility or liberty, power, will, or 
obligation ; as, " It may rain ; he may go or stay ; I can ride ; he would 
walk ; they should learn." 

The Infinitive Mood (9) expresses a thing in a general and unlimit- 
ed manner, without any distinction of number or person ; as, " To act, 
to speak, to be feared." 

The Imperative Mood is (10) used for commanding, exhorting, en- 
treating, or permitting ; as, " Depart thou ; mind ye ; let us stay ; go 
in peace." 

Of the Tenses or Times. 

Tense, (n) being the means or method of dividing time, might seem 
to admit only of the present, past, and future ; but to mark it more ac- 

questions. 

(1) Is the same verb ever used both in a transitive and an intransitive sense?--(2) Docs 
an intransitive verb ever become transitive 1— (3) What are auxiliary verbs ? — (4) What 
is mood or mode ?--- (5) How many moods are there .?---(6) What does the indicative mood 
indicate ?— (7) What does the subjunctive mood represent ? — (8) What docs the potential 
mood imply ? — (9) What does the infinitive mood express? — ( 10) What is the imperative 
mood used for? — (11) What is Tense? 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

curately, it is made to consist (i) of six variations, viz. the Present, the 
Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future 
Tenses. 

The Present Tense (2) represents an action or event as passing at the 
time in which it is mentioned ; as, " I rule ; I am ruled ; I think ; I fear." 

The Present Tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &.c. at 
present existing ; as, " He is an able man ;" " She is an amiable wo- 
man." It is also used in speaking of actions continued, with occasion- 
al intermissions, to the present time ; as, "He frequently rides ;" " He 
walks out every morning ;" " He goes into the country every summer." 
We sometimes apply this tense even to persons long since dead ; as, 
"Seneca reasons and moralizes well ;" "Job speaks feelingly of his af- 
flictions." 

The Present Tense, preceded by the words, when, before, after, as 
soon as, &c. is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future 
action ; as, " When he arrives he will hear the news ;" "He will hear 
the news before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or at farthest, soon 
after he arrives;" "The more she improves, the more amiable she will 
be." 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes substituted 
for the imperfect tense ; as, "He enters the territory of the peacable in- 
habitants ; hefghts and conquers, takes an immense booty, which he di- 
vides amongst his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph." 

The Imperfect Tense (3) represents the action or event, either as 
past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past ; as, 
"I loved her for her modesty and virtue ;" "They were traveling post 
when he met them." 

The Perfect Tense (4) not only refers to what is past, but also con- 
veys an allusion to the present time ; as, " I have finished my letter;" 
"I have seen the person that was recommended to me." 

The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote a thing that 
is past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is^actu- 
ally remaining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare 
the thing has been done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or 
action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of the time in 
which it was done. If Ave speak of the present century, we say, 
"Philosophers have made great discoveries in the present century;" 
but if we speak of the last century, we say, " Philosophers made great 
discoveries in the last century." 

The Pluperfect (5) Tense represents a thing, not only as past, but 
also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence ; as, 
"I had finished my letter before he arrived." 

The First Future Tense (e) represents the action as yet to come, 
either with or without respect to the precise time ; as, " The sun will 



QUESTIONS. 

(1) How many variations of terse are there?— (2) What docs the present tense repre- 
sent? — (3) Wliat docs the imperfect tense \ eprese.H 7— (4) What does the perfecttense 
represent 7— (5) What does the pluperfect tense represent 1 — (6) What does the first fu- 
ture tense represent ? 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

The Second Future (i) intimates that the action will be fully accom- 
plished, at, or before, the time of another future action or event ; as, 
" I shall have dined at one o'clock." " The two houses will have fin- 
ished their business when they adjourn." 

It is to be observed, that in the subjunctive mood, the event being- 
spoken of under a condition or supposition, or in the form of a wish, and 
therefore as doubtful and contingent, the verb itself in the present, and 
the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times, often carry 
with them somewhat of a future sense ; as, "If he come to-morrow, I 
may speak to him ;" "If he should, or would come to-morrow, I might, 
would, could, or should speak to him." - Observe also, that the auxiliary 
should and would, in the imperfect times, are used to express the pres- 
ent and future, as well as the past ; as, " It is my desire that he should, 
or would come now, or to-morrow ;" as well as, " It was my desire, that 
he should or would come yesterday." So that in this mood the precise 
time of the verb is very much determined by the nature and drift of the 
sentence. 

The present, past, and future tenses may be used either definitely or 
indefinitely, both with respect to time and action. When they denote 
custom, or habits, and not individual acts, they are applied indefinitely ; 
as, " Virtue promotes happiness ;" " The old Romans governed by bene- 
fits more than by fear;" " I shall hereafter employ my time more useful- 
ly." In these examples, the words promotes, governed and shall employ 
are used indefinitely, both in regard to action and time ; for they are not 
confined to individual actions nor to any precise points of present, past, 
or future time. When they are applied to signify particular actions, 
and to ascertain the precise points of time to which they are confined, 
they are used definitely, as in the following instances. "My brother 
is writing ;" " He built the house last summer, but did not inhabit it 
till yesterday." " He loill write another letter to-morrow." 

The different tenses also represent an action as complete or perfect, 
or, as, incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases, "I am writing," "I was 
writing," " I shall be writing-," imperfect, unfinished actions are signi- 
fied. But the following examples, "I wrote," "I have written," "I 
had written," " I shall have written," all denote complete perfect ac- 
tion. 



Of Conjugation. 

The conjugation (2) of a verb is the regular combination and ar- 
rangement of its several numbers, persons, moods and tenses. 

The indicative [3] Mood has six tenses ; namely, the present, the 
imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second. 



QUESTIONS. 

(1) What does (he second future tense represent? — (2) What is Conjugation? — (3) 
How many tenses has the Indicative Mood ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

CONJUGATION OF THE VKRB HAVE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD- 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular .Number. Plural Number. 

I have, We have, 

Thou hast, Ye or you have, 

He, she or it, has or hath ; They have. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

I had, We had, 

Thou hadst, Ye or you had, 

He, &c. had, They had. 

The perfect Tense (i) r is formed by prefixing the sign have, and its va- 
riations to the perfect participles ; thus, 

PERFECT TENSE, 

Singular. Plural. 

I have had, We have had, 

Thou hast had, Ye or you have had, 

He has had, They have had. 

The Pluperfect Tense (2) is formed by prefixing the sign had,a.nd its 
variation, to the perfect participle ; thus, 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

I had had, We had had, 

Thou hadst had, Ye or you had had, 

He had had, They had had. 

The First Future Tense (3) is formed by prefixing the sign shall or 
ivill, and its variation to the present tense ; thus, 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

I shall or will have, We shall or •will have, 

Thou shalt or wilt have, Ye or you shall or will have, 

He shall or will have, They shall or will have. 

The Second Future Tense (4) is formed by prefixing the signs shall 
or will have, and their variations, to the participle ; thus, 

SECOND AND FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

I shall have had, We shall have had, 

Thou wilt have had, Ye or you will have had, 

He will have had, They will have had. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How is the perfect tense formed ?— (2) How is the pluperfect tense formed?— (3) 
How is the first future tense formed?— (4) How is the second future tense formed ? Con- 
jugate the verb Have in the indicative mood. 

7 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

The present and the imperfect tenses are called simple tenses, be- 
cause they are formed without auxiliaries — the perfect, the pluperfect, 
the first future, and the second, are called compound tenses, because 
they are formed by the help of signs, or auxiliaries. 



Subjunctive Mood. 

The Subjunctive Mood (i) has six tenses ; namely, the present, the 
imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE (2) INDICATIVE FORM. 
Singular Number. riural Number. 

If I have, If we have, 

If thou hast, If ye or you have y 

If he, she, or it has, or hath, If they have. 

PRESENT TENSE (3) ELLIPTICAL FORM. 
Singular. Plural. 

If I ( j have,* If we ( ) have, 

If thou ( ) have, If ye or you ( ) have ? 

If he ( ) have, If they ( ) have. 

The remaining' tenses (4) of the subjunctive mood (in all verhs except 
the neuter verb Be, which, has hco forms in the present tense, as well as 
in the imperfect, see page 40J are, in general, similar to the correspond- 
ent tenses of the indicative mood ; with the addition to the verb, of a 
conjunction, expressed or implied, denoting a condition, motive, wish, 
supposition, &c. 

[It will be proper for the teacher t« require his pupils to repeat all the tenses of this mood 
■with a conjunction prefixed to each of tbem. Seepages 30 and 31.] 

Potential Mood. 

The Potential Mood (5) has four tenses ; namely, the present, the 
imperfect, the perfect, and the pluperfect. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE- 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

The Present Tense (e) is formed by prefixing the sign, may or can f 
and its variation, to the verb ; as, 

questions. 

CO How many Tenses has the Subjunctive Moo^ ?— (2) Give the conjugation of tie pres- 
ent tense, indicative foim.— (3) Give the elliptical foi m .— (4) How are t he remaining ten- 
ses conjugated?— (5) How many tenses has the poteiiti >T,ood?— (6) How is the present 
tense formed ? 



*This form of the subjunctive mood has should, or some other auxil- 
ry understood. 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I may or can have, We may or can have, 

Thou may st or canst have, Ye or you may or can have, 

He may or can have, They may or can have. 

The Imperfect Tense (1) is formed by prefixing the sign,might, could, 
would or should, and its variation, to the Verb ; as, 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would or should 

have, have, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or 

shouldst have, should have, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or should 

have, have. 

The Perfect Tense (2) is formed by prefixing the signs, may, or can 
have, and their variations to the pefect participle ; as, 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

I may or can have had, We may or can have had, 

Thou mayst or canst have had, Ye or you may or can have had, 

He may or can have had, They may or can have had. 

The Pluperfect Tense (3) is formed by prefixing the signs, might, 
could, would or should have, and their variations, to the perfect partici- 
ple ; as, 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or should 

have had, have had, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would or 

shouldst have had, should have had, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would or should 

have had, have had. 

Infinitive Mood. 

The Infinitive Mood (4) has but two tenses ; namely, the -present, 
and the perfect. The present tense (5) is formed by prefixing to, which 
is called the sign of the infinitive mood, to the verb ; as, to go, to run, 
to strike, &c. 

The perfect tense (e) is formed by prefixing to have, to the perfect 
participle ; as, to have gone, to have run, to have beaten. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. (7) PERFECT TENSE. 

To have. To have had. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How is the imperfect tense formed ?— (2) How is the perfect formed ?— (3) How is 
the pluperfect foimed? — Conjugate the verb Have, through all the teases.— (4) How many 
tenses has the infinitive mon'il ?— (5) How is die present formed? — (6) How is the perfect 
formed ? — Give the conjugation of the verb Have in the infinitive mood. 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

A verb (i) in the Infinitive Mood has no nominative case, and there- 
fore, it is unlimited in respect to number and person. Hence it is called 
the infinitive or unlimited mood. In all the other moods, the verb is at- 
tended by a nominative case, by which it is limited as to person and 
number. 

Imperative Mood. 

The Imperative Mood (2) has but one tense, and one person ; namely, 
the present tense, and the second person. 

This form (3) of the verb is generally used for commanding ; as, de- 
part thou ; and is therefore called the imperative mood ; but it is also 
used for exhorting, entreating, and permitting ; as, mind ye ; let us stay ; 
go in peace. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular Number. Plural Number. 

Have thou, or do thou have ; Have ye or you, or do ye or you have. 

Of Auxiliary and Defective Verbs. 

Defective Verbs (4) are so called, because they can be used only in 
some of the moods and tenses. 

The principal of them are these, («) may, can, shall, will, must, ought, 
quoth, and their variations. 

[For the variation of these words on account of tense, &c. see page 28.] 

That the verbs must and ought have both a present and past signifi- 
cation, appears from the following sentences ; "I must own that I am 
to blame ;" "He must have been mistaken ;" " Speaking things which 
they ought not ;" " These ought ye to have done." 

The verbs (e) have, be, will, and do, when they are unconnected with 
a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but prin- 
cipal verbs ; as, " We have enough ;" " I am grateful ;" " He ivills it 
to be so." 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) Why is this Mood called the infinitive mood ?— (2) How many tenses has the im- 
perative mood? — (3) What is the imperative mood used for? — Give the conjugation of 
the impel ative mood. — (4) Why are defective verbs so called? — (5) Repeat the principal 
of them.— (6) Are the verbs have, be, will and do, always used as auxiliaries 1 

It appears to be proper, for the information of the learners, to make 
a few observations in this place, on some of the tenses, &c. The first 
is, that, in the potential mood, some grammarians confound the present 
withtheimperfectten.se; and the perfect with the pluperfect. But 
that they are really distinct, and have an appropriate reference to time, 
correspondent to the definitions of those tenses, will appear from a few 
examples ; " I wished him to stay, but he would not;" I could not ac- 
complish the business in time ;" " It was my direction that he should 
submit ;" " He was ill, but I thought he might live ; " I may have mis- 
understood him ;" " He cannot have deceived me ;" " He might have 
finished the work sooner, but he could not have done it better." It must, 
however, be admitted, that, on some occasions, the auxiliaries, might, 
could, would, and should, refer also to present and to future time, 



El'YMOLOGY. 73 

" They do as they please." In this view, they also have their aux- 
iliaries ; as, I shall have enough ;" " I will be grateful." 

The Auxiliary and Defected Verbs seem not to be included in the 
common definition of the verb. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the 
following account of them. 

Ought (1) denotes duty ; as, he ought to be here. 

Have (2) denotes possession ; as, Children, have ye any meat ? — 
Have also denotes time ; as, we have performed our duty. 

May (3) implies liberty ; as, he may return if he desires it. May also 
implies doubt ; as, he may not be here, although I expect him. 

Can (4) implies power or ability ; as, he can pass the guards. 

MuM (5) denotes necessity or compulsion ; as, he must pay the debt 

Might (e) implies liberty ; as he might have passed the guards, had 
he been so disposed. Might also implies power ; as, he might have re- 
turned in spite of his keepers. 

Could (7) signifies power or ability ; as, he could have paid the de- 
mand. 

Would (s) implies determination ; as, he ivould go in. Also, inclina- 
tion ; as, I ivould that all ivould come to the knowledge of the truth. 

Should (9) denotes duty ; as, you should treat your superiors with 
deference. 

Shall, (10) in the first person, only foretells ; as, I shall go to-morrow. 
In the second and third persons, shall promises, commands, cr threat- 
ens ; as, you or they shall be rewarded. Thou shalt not steal. 

Will, (h) in the first person, denotes promise ; as, I will not let thee 
go. In the second and third persons it foretells ; as, he will reward 
the righteous. 

Of Regular and Irregular Verbs. 

Verbs (12) which form their imperfect tense and perfect participle, by 
adding to the verb ed, (or d only, when the verb ends in e,) are called 
regular ; as, 

PRESENT TENSE. (13) IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

I destroy, I destroyed, Destroyed. 

I love, I loved, Loved. 

Verbs (14) which do not form their imperfect tense, and perfect par- 
ticiple, by adding d, or ed, to the present, are irregular. 

Irregular Verbs are of various sorts. 

1. Such (15) as have the present and imperfect tenses, and perfect 
participle, the same ; as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Cost, Cost, Cost. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) Whot floes ought denote?— (2) What does have denote?— (3") What does mOflm- 
ply?— (4) What does can imply?— ,(5) What does must denote?— (6) What does might 
imply?— (7) What does could signify ?• (3) What does wovld imply ?— (9) What does 
should denote?— (10) What does shall imply?— (11) Whatdoes will denote?— (12) What 
♦erbs are called regular? — (i3) Give an example of the regular verb in the present, im- 
perfect, &c. — (14) What verbs are called irregular .?— (15) Give art example of tho sever- 
al sorts of irregular verbs ? 

7* 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

% Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect participle, the same ;' 
as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Sell, Sold, Sold. 

3. Such as have the imperfect tense, and the perfect participle, dif- 
ferent ; as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Blow, Blew, Blown. 

Many verbs become irregular by contraction ; as, " Feed, fed ; leave, 
left ;" others by the termination, en ; as, " Fall, fell, fallen ;" others by 
the termination, ght ; as, " Buy, bought ; teach, taught," &c. 

[For a list of the irregular verbs see page 26.] 

The compiler has not inserted, in the list of irregular verbs referred 
to, such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse, and 
which are improperly terminated by t, instead of ed ; as, learnt, -spelt, 
spilt, &e. These should be avoided in every sort of composition. It 
is, however, proper to observe, that some contractions of ed into t, are 
unexceptionable ; and others, the only established forms of expression ; 
as, crept, gilt, &c. and lost, felt, slept, £fc. These allowable and neces- 
sary contractions must therefore be carefully distinguished by the 
learner, from those that are exceptionable. The words which are ob- 
solete have also been omitted, that the learner might not be induced 
to mistake them for words in present use. Such are, wreathen, drunk- 
en, holpen, molten, gotten, hoi den, bounden, &c. ; and swang, wrang, 
slank, strawed, gat, brake, tare, ware, &c. 

Of Neuter and Passive Verbs. 

A. Neuter Verb (i) implies being or existence, or a state of existence 
without action ; as, " I am in health ;" " He is weary of his life ;" 
" They rest from their labors." 

Some verbs (2) may be used either in an active or a neuter sense. 
In the sentence, "Here I rest" — (repose,) the verb rest is used in a, neu- 
ter sense ; but in the sentence, " Here I rest my hopes," it is used in 
an active sense." 

A Passive Verb (3) is a verb that represents its subject or nomina- 
tive as being (or having been) acted upon ; as, " I am persecuted by my 
enemies." "He has been injured by slanderers." In its original ap- 
plication, passion signifies a suffering — (enduring.) The Crucifixion 
of our Saviour is for this reason called his Passion, that is, his suffer- 
ing on the cross. From passion is derived passive. Hence the name 
of the class of verbs so denominated ; the meaning and use of the 
word, has, however, been greatly extended. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) What is a Neuter Verb ?— (2) Is the sime verb used both in an active and a neuter 
sense ?— (3) What does a passive verb express ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

The Passive Verb (1) is formed by prefixing the neuter verb Be (or 
Am) or some of its variations (art, is, was, wast, were, wert, or, been,) 
to the perfect participle of a transitive verb ; as, I am loved — He isbeat- 
en — The coach is drawn. 

In the following sentences, a part of the neuter verb Be is prefixed 
to the perfect participle of an intransitive verb. The ship is arrived, 
the bird isjloivn ; such verbs (2) are intransitive verbs, in the passive 
form. Some writers on grammar reject this form of expression as in- 
correct, and write in its stead, " The bird hasjloivn" &c. — (See conju- 
gation of the neuter and passive verbs, pages 39, 40, and 41.J 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle (3) is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature 
of a verb and of an adjective. 

Participles (4) often become adjectives, and are placed before nouns 
to denote quality ; as, " A lying tongue ;" " A burning fever ;" A lov- 
ing child ;" "A moving spectacle;" "A heated imagination;" "A 
learned man." The words mark simply the qualities referred to, with- 
out any regard to time ; and may properly be called participial adjec- 
tives. 

When (5) preceded by an article, and adjective, or a noun, or pro- 
noun, in the possessive case, participles become nouns ; as, "The be- 
ginning ;" " A good understanding ;" " The chancellor's being at- 
tached to the king, secured his crown." 

There are (e) three Participles : namely, the Present or Active, the 
Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect; as, loving — loved* — 
having loved. 

Participles not only convey the notion of time ; but they also signify 
actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pronouns, in the same man- 
ner as verbs do. 

OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb (?) is a word joined to a verb, or to a participle, to show 
the manner, time, or place in Avhich the action is done ; as, "Rereads 
correctly ;" "He mentioned it before ;" " They labor here.'' 1 

[Adverbs are more frequently added to verbs, than to any other parts 
of speech, and therefore they are called adverbs.] 

Some (8) adverbs are compared, thus ; soon, sooner, soonest ; often, 
oftener, often est. Those ending in ly, are compared by more and most ; 
as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely." 



QUESTIONS. 

(1) How i« a passive verb formed ? - (2) What kind of verbs are is flown — is arrived, 
&c1- (3) What is a Participle ?— (4) Do participles beconu) adjectives ?— (5) Do parti- 
ciples ever become nouns ? — (6) How mary participles are there! — (7) What is an Ad- 
verb 7 — (8) How are adverbs compared ? 

* When this participle is joined to the verb to have, it is called per- 
fect ; when it is joined to the verb to be, or understood with it, it is de- 
nominated passive. 



7G ETYMOLOGY. 

Adverbs seem (1) originally to have been contrived to express compen- 
diously in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more; 
as, "He acted wisely," for, he acted with wisdom ; " Prudently," for, 
with prudence ; " He did it here," for, he did it in this place. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to the following 
cases, namely, 

Of Manner, Prudently, honestly, wisely, well, ill, &c. 
Time present, Now, to-day, &c. 
Time past, Before, already, lately, long ago, &c. 
Time future, Presently, immediately, to-morrow, &c. 
Time indefinite, Sometimes, seldom, always, &c. 
In a place, Here, there, where, &c. 
To a place, Hither, thither, whither, &c. 
Toivards a place, Hitherward, thitherward. 
From a place, Hence, thence, whence. 
Repetition of times definitely, Once, twice, thrice, again, &c. 
Repetition of times indefinitely, Often, seldom, frequently. 
Order, First, secondly, thirdly, &c. 
Quantity, Sufficiently, enough, &c. 
Negation, Nay, no, not, &c. 
Separation, Apart, separately, asunder, &c. 
Conjunction, Together, generally, universally, &c. 
Interrogation, Why, when, how, &c. 
Defect, Almost, nearly, fyc. 
Preference, Rather, chiefly, especially, &c. 
Abatement, Scarcely, hardly, &c. 
Contingence, Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, &c. 
Certainty or affirmation, Verily, truly, yea, yes, certainly. 
Comparison, More, most, less, worse, &c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which are 
formed by a combination of several of the prepositions, with the adverbs 
of place, here, there, and where ; as, (2) hereof, thereof, whereof ; hereto, 
thereto, whereto ; hereby, thereby, whereby ; herewith, therewith, 
wherewith ; herein, therein, wherein ; therefore, (i. e. there-for,) where- 
fore, (i. e. where-for,) hereupon or hereon, thereupon or thereon, 
whereupon or whereon, &c. Except therefore, these are seldom used. 

In (3) some instances the preposition suffers no change, but becomes 
an adverb merely by its application ; as when we say, " He rides about ;" 
" He was near falling ;" "But do not after lay the blame on me." 

There are (4) also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and 
the letter a used instead of at, on, &c. ; as, aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, 
asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, &c. 

The words (j)ivhen and where, and all others of the same nature, such 
as, whence, whither, ivhenever, wherever, &c. may be properly called ad- 
verbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of adverbs 
and conjunctions; of conjunctions, as they conjoin sentences; of ad- 
verbs, as they denote the attributes either of time or of place. 

QUESTIONS. 

(t) For wliat purpose were adverbs contrived ?— Give an example of each kind of ad- 
verbs ? — (2) Give examples of adverbs formed by a combination of adverbs of place and 
prepositions?— (3> Do prepositions become adverbs? — (4)'- Are adverbs composed of 
nouns?— (5) What words are called adverbial conjunctions? 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

It may be particularly observed with respect to the word therefore, that 
it is an adverb, when, without joining' sentences, it only gives the sense 
of, for that reason. When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a 
conjunction ; as, " He is good, therefore he is happy." 

There are several combinations of short words which are used ad- 
verbially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in parsing ; as, 
Not at all, a little while ago, to and fro, in vain, fyc. 

Of Adverbs of Degree. 

The*' words (1) very, quite, exceedingly, extremely, excessively, too, 
much, fyc. are denominated Adverbs (or Ad-words) of Degree. These 
words (2) are prefixed to adverbs of manner, time, fyc. as, " He rides too 
fast ;"The stage will arrive very soon ; and to other adverbs of degree ; 
as, He rides much too fast. They are alsoprefered to Adjectives ; as, 
"the weather is vert warm;" The house is too large, fyc. (See page 
lftj 

OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun (3) is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too 
frequent repetition of the same word ; as, " The man is happy ; he is 
benevolent ; he is useful." 

[Pronoun comes from the Latin word, pro-nomen, compounded of pro, for, and nomen, 
a noun or name.] 

There are (4) four kinds of pronouns, viz. the Personal, the Rela- 
tive, the Interrogative, and the Adjective Pronouns. 

Of Personal Pronouns. 

There are (a) five Personal Pronouns, viz. I, thou, he, she, and it ; 
with their plurals, we, ye or you, they. 

Personal Pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and case. 

The numbers of pronouns, like those of nouns, are two, the singular 
and the plural; as, I, thou, he; we, ye or you, they. 

Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, 
he, she, it. He is masculine ; she is feminine ; it is neuter. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same'time the sub- 
jects of the discourse, are supposed to be present; from which, and other 
circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and needs not to be 
marked by a distinction of gender in the pronouns ; but the third person 
or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, it is 
necessary that it should be marked by a distinction of gender ; at 

questions. 

(1) Wlnt words are denominated Adverbs of Degree ? — (2) To what parts of speech 
are adverbs of degree prefixed ? — (3) What is a Pronoun ? — (4) How many kinds of pro- 
nouns are tbere ? — Name them. 

* The words vei-y, quite, exceedingly, excessively, extremely, too, and 
some other words, are called by some Grammarians, helping adjectives, 
when they modify adjectives — when they modify adverbs, they are 
called helping adverbs. — Blair. 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

least, when some particular person or thing is spoken of, that ought 
to be more distinctly marked ; accordingly the pronoun singular of the 
third person has the three genders, he, she, it. 

Pronouns (1) have three cases ; the Nominative, the Possessive, and 
the Objective. 

The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form different from 
that of the nominative, or the possessive case. 

A Table of the Personal Pronouns in the Three Cases. 

Singular Number. 

First person. 2d person. 3d per. mas. 3d per. fern. 3d per. neu. 

JSTom. 1,00 Tnou > He > She > It, 

Poss. Mine, Thine, His, Hers, Its, 

Obj. Me; Thee; Him; Her; It. 

Plural Number. 

JVom. We, Ye or You, They, They, They, 

Poss. Ours, Yours, Theirs, Theirs, Theirs, 

Obj. Us. You. Them. Them. Them. 



Of the Relative Pronouns. 

Relative Pronouns (3) are such as relate, in general, to some word or 
phrase going before, which is thence called the antecedent ; they are, 
who, which, andthat ; as, " The man is happy who lives virtuously."* 

What (4) is a kind of compound pronoun, including both the antece- 
dent and the relative, and is equivalent to that and which : as, " He 
praises what you dispraise ;" that is, he praises that which you dispraise." 

Who (5) is applied to persons, which to animals and inanimate things ; 
as, " He is a friend, who is faithful in adversity ;" " The bird, which 
sung so sweetly, is flown ;" " This is the tree, which produces no fruit." 

That, (e) as a relative, is often used to prevent the too frequent re- 
petition ofivho and which. It is applied to both persons and things ; 
as, " He that acts wisely deserves praise ;" Modesty is a quality thai 
highly adorns a woman." 

Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined ; 

Singular and plural. 

Nominative, (e) Who, 

Possessive, Whose, 

Objective, Whom. 



QUESTIONS. 

(1) How many cases have Pronouns ?— (2) Repeat the table of personal pronouns. — 
(3) What are relative pronouns ?-- (4) What is what equivalent to ?— (5) How is who 
applied ?— (6) Fur what is that useu?--(7) Decline the relative who. 

* The relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, relates to a'word 
or phrase which is not antecedent, but subsequent, to the relative. 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

IVhich, that, and what, are likewise of both numbers, but they do not 
vary their termination ; except that ivhose is sometimes used as the 
possessive case of which ; as, "Is there any other doctrine whose fol- 
lowers are punished ?" 

Who, ivhich, and what, have sometimes the words soever and ever an- 
nexed to them ; as, ivhosocvcr or ivhoever, whichsoever or whichever, 
whatsoever or whatever ; but they are seldom used in modern style. 

The word (i) that is sometimes a relative, sometimes a demonstrative 
pronoun, and sometimes a conjunction. (2) It is a relative, when it may 
be turned into who or which without destroying the sense ; as, " They 
that (who) reprove us, may be our best friends ;" "From every thing 
that (which) you see, derive instruction." (3) It is a demonstrative pro- 
noun when it is followed immediately by a noun, to which it is either 
joined, or refers, and which it limits or qualifies ; as, " That boy is in- 
dustrious ;" " That belongs to me ;" meaning, that book, that desk, &c. 
(4) It is a conjunction, when it joins sentences together, and cannot be 
turned into who or ivhich, without destroying the sense ; as, " Take 
care that every day be well employed ;" " I hope he will believe that I 
have not acted improperly." 

Who, ivhich, and what, (5) are called Interrogate es, when they are 
used in asking questions ; as, " JVho is he ?" "Which is the- book ?" 
What art thou doinp; ?" 



Of the Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective Pronouns (6) are of a mixed nature, participating the pro- 
perties both of pronouns and adjectives. 

The Adjective Pronouns (7) may be subdivided into five sorts, name- 
ly, the Possessive, the Distributive, the Demonstrative, the Indefinite 
and the Interrogative. 

The possessive (s) are those which relate to possession or property. 
There are seven of them ; viz. my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 

The following sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns. — " My 
lesson is finished ; Thy books are defaced ; He loves his studies ; She 
performs her duty ; We own our faults ; Your situation is distressing ; 
I admire their virtues." 

The following are examples of the possessive cases of the personal 
pronouns. " This desk is mine ; the other is thine ; These trinkets are. 
his ; those are hers ; This house is ours, and that is yours ; Theirs is 
very commodious." 

Self is added to possessives ; as, myself, yourselves ; and sometimes 
to personal pronouns ; as, himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own, 
expresses emphasis and opposition ; as, " I did this myself;" that is, 
" not another ;" or it forms a reciprocal pronoun ; as, " We hurt our- 
selves by vain rage." 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How is the word that construed ?— (2) When is it a relative ? — (3) When a demon- 
strative? — (4) When a conjunction ? — (5) What words are called interrogative pronouns * 
(6) What are adjective pronouns ? — (7) How are adjecii>e pronouns subdivided ? — (8) 
Which are the possessive 1 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

Himself, themselves, are now used in the nominative case, instead of 
hisself, theirselves ; as, " He came himself;" " He himself shall do this •" 
" They performed it themselves." 

2. The distributive (i) are those which denote the persons or things 
that make up a number, as taken separately and singly. They are, 
each, every, either ; as, ''''Each of his brothers is in a favorable situation ;" 
Every man must account for himself;" " I have not seen either of 
them." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either 
of the two, or every one of any number taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of 
them all taken separately. This pronoun was formerly used apart 
from its noun, but it is now constantly annexed to it, except in legal 
proceedings ; as in the phrase, " All and every of them." 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and signi- 
fies the one or the other. To say, " either of the three," is therefore 
improper. 

JYeither imports "not either ;" that is, not one nor the other ; as, 
"Neither of my friends was there." 

The demonstrative (2) are those which precisely point out the sub- 
jects to which they relate ; this and that, these and those, former and 
latter, are of this class ; as, " This is true charity ; that is only its 
image." „. 

The indefinite (3) are those which express their subjects in an indefi- 
nite or general manner. The following are of this kind ; some, other, 
any, one, all, such, &c. 

Of these pronouns, only the, words one and other are varied. One 
has a possessive case, which it forms in the same manner as nouns ; 
as, one, one's. This word has a general signification, meaning people 
at large ; and sometimes also a peculiar reference to the person who 
is speaking ; as, " One ought to pity the distresses of mankind." "One 
is apt to love one's self." This word is often used, by good writers, in 
the plural number ; as, " The great ones of the world ;" " The boy 
wounded the old bird, and stole the young ones ;" "My wife and the 
little ones are in good health." 

Other is declined in the following manner : 

Singular. Plural- 

Nom. Other, ( 4 ) Others, 

Poss. Other's, Others', 

06;. Other, Others. 

The plural others is only used when apart from the noun to which it 
refers, whether expressed or understood ; as, "When you have peru- 
sed these papers, I will send you the others." " He pleases some, but 
he disgusts others." When this pronoun is joined to nouns, either sin- 
gular or plural, it has no variation ; as, "the other man;" "the other 
men." 

The word another (7) is composed of the indefinite article prefixed to 
the word other. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) Which are the distributive ?— (2) Which are the demonstrative ?— (3) Which are 
the indefinite. ? — (4) Decline the pronoun other. 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

None is used in both numbers ; as, "Aone is so deaf as he that will 
not hear;" "None of those are equal to these." It seems originally 
to have signified, according to its derivation, not one, and therefore to 
have had no plural ; but there is good authority for the use of it in the 
plural number ; as, " -Ycmethatg-o unto her return again." — Prov. ii. 19. 

The (1) Interrogative are which and what, when prefixed to nouns ; as, 
" What time did he arrive ?" " Which house did he occupy ?" 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction (2) is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect 
sentences ; so as out of two or more sentences to make but one. It 
sometimes connects only words. 

Conjunctions (3) are principally divided into two sorts, the Copula- 
tive and the Disjunctive. 

The Conjunction Copulative (4) serves to connect or to continue a 
sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c. ; as, 
" He and his brother reside in London ;" " I will go if he will accom- 
pany me ;" " You are happy, because you are good." 

The Conjunction Disjunctive (5) serves, not only to connect and con- 
tinue the sentence, but also to express opposition of meaning in differ- 
ent degrees ; as, " Though he was frequently reproved, yet he did not 
reform ;" "They came with her, but they went away without her." 

The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions. 

The Copulative (e) And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, there- 
fore, wherefore. 

The Disjunctive, (7) But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, 
neither, yet, notwithstanding. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction and as an 
adverb ; and sometimes, as a preposition. " I rest then upon this ar- 
gument ;" then is here a conjunction ; in the following phrase, it is an 
adverb ; "He arrived then, and not before." "I submitted ; for it was 
vain to resist ;" in this sentence, for is a conjunction ; in the next, it is 
a preposition ; " He contended for victory only." In the first of the 
following sentences, since is a conjunction ; in the second, it is a pre- 
position ,• and in the third, an adverb ; " Since we must part, let us do 
it peaceably ;" I have not seen him since that time ;" " Our friendship 
commenced long since." 

Relative Pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect senten- 
ces ; as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his 
commandments." 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite 
only words ; as, in the following instances ; " Duty and interest forbid 
vicious indulgences ;" " Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these 
forms of expression contains two sentences, namely ; " Duty forbids 
vicious indulgences ; interest forbids vicious indulgences ;" " Wisdom 
governs us, or folly governs us." 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) Which are the interrogative adjective pronouns ?— (2) What is a Conjunction ?— 
(3) How are conjunctions divided 1— (4) What is the office of a copulative conjunction ? 
(ft) What of a disjunctive 7— (6) Repeat the copulative conjunctions.— (7) Repeat the dis- 
junctive. 

8 



82 



ETYMOLOGY. 



As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases appropriated 
to the coupling of sentences, that are never employed in joining the 
members of a sentence ; so there are several conjunctions appropriated 
to the latter use, which are never employed in the former ; and some 
that are equally adapted to both those purposes ; as, again, further, be- 
side, &c. of the first kind ; than, lest, unless, that, so that, &c. of the 
second: and hut, and, for, therefore, &c. of the last. 

OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions (i) serve to connect words with one another, and to 
show the relation between them. They are, for the most part, put be- 
fore nouns and pronouns, as, " He went from London to York ;" She 
is above disguise f " They are instructed by him." 

Preposition conies from the Latin Pre-pono r which signifies to put before,, and preposi- 
tions are so called because tuny ate put belore uouns and pronouns. 

A list of the principal prepositions. (2) Move, against, about, after, 
amidst, across, among, athwart, at — behind, below, before, beside, beneath, 
between, betwixt, beyond, by — concerning — down, during — except—for,, 
from — in, into — near — of on or upon? over — round or around— since — 
through, throughout, till, touching, toward — under? underneath? up — 
ivithin, without — out of — over against — next to — according to — instead 
of, and some other words. 

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition ; as, to up- 
hold, to invest, to overlook ; and this composition sometimes gives a 
new sense to the verb , as, to understand, to withdraw, to forgive. — 
But in English, the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, 
and separately from it, like an adverb, in which situation it is not less 
apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a new meaning ; and may 
still be considered as belonging to the verb, and as a part of it. As, to 
cast, is to throw ; but to cast up, or to compute an account, is quite a 
different thing ; thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give over,. &c. So that 
the meaning of the verb, and the propriety of the phrase, depend on the 
preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain syllables em- 
ployed, which grammarians have called inseparable prepositions ; as. 
be, con, mis, &c. in bedeck, conjoin, mistake. 

One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express those rela- 
tions, which, in some languages, are chiefly marked by cases, or the dif- 
ferent endings of nouns. (See page 53.) The necessity and use of 
them will appear from the following examples. If we say, " He writes 
a pen ;" " They ran the river ;" " The tower fell the Greeks ;" " Lam- 
beth is Westminster-abbey ;" there is observable, in each of these ex- 
pressions, either a total want of connexion ; or such a connexion as 
produces falsehood or nonsense ; and it is evident, that, before they can 
be turned into sense, the vacancy must be filled up by some connecting 
word ; as thus, " He writes ivith a pen ;" " They ran towards the riv- 
er;" "The tower fell upon the Greeks ;" "Lambeth is over against 
Westminster-abbey." We see by these instances, how prepositions 
may be necessary to connect those words, which in their signification 
are not naturally connected. 

QUESTIONS* 
(1) What is a Preposition? — (2) Give a list of the principal prepositions. 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, seem to have 
denoted relations of place ; but they are now used figuratively to ex- 
press other relations. For example, as they who are above have in sev- 
eral respects the advantage of such as are beloiv. Prepositions express- 
ing high and low places, are used for superiority and inferiority in gen- 
eral, as, " He is above disguise ;" " We serve under a good master ;" 
"He rules over a willing people ;" " We should do nothing beneath our 
character." 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections (1) are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence, 
to express the passions or emotions of the speaker ; as, "Oh! I have 
alienated my friend ;" " Alas ! I fear for life ;" " O virtue ! how amia- 
thou art !" 

The English Interjections, as well as those of other languages, are 
comprised within a small compass. They are of different sorts, accord- 
ing to the different passions which they serve to express. Those which 
intimate earnestness or grief, are, O I oh ! ah ! alas ! Such as are ex- 
pressive of contempt, are, pish ! tush ! of wonder, heigh ! really ! 
strange t of calling, hem ! ho ! soho ! of aversion or disgust, foh ! fie ! 
away 1 of a call of the attention, lo ! behold ! hark ! of requesting si- 
lence, hush! hist! of salutation, welcome! hail! all hail! Besides 
these, several others, frequent in the mouths of the multitude, might be 
enumerated ; but, in a grammar of a cultivated tongue, it is unneces- 
sary to expatiate on such expressions of passion, as are scarcely worthy 
of being ranked among the branches of artificial language. 

INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

These are words chiefly derived from other languages. They have, 
like all other words, though seldom employed singly, a separate and 
distinct meaning of their own. As the most difficult, but most neces- 
sary part of study (to use the words of a great philosopher) is to find 
out and fix the meaning of words, the following explanation of what 
are called inseparable prepositions or particles, is particularly worthy 
of the attention of the learner. — A few of these words are still used 
separately. 

A signifies on or in ; as a-foot, a-shore, a-bed ; that is, on foot, on 
shore, in bed. 

After denotes posteriority of time ; as afternoon, after-times. 

Be is said to signify about ; as, besprinkle, bestir, that is, stir about ; 
also, for and before, as, bespeak, that is, speak for or before. 

"The true character of be," says Mr. Grant, "seems to be, to com- 
municate or deeply involve in, an action, a thing, or quality ; as, bedaub, 
bewilder, bewail, belove." Be has the same general effect as all the 
other prefixes or affixes, it fits the word to which it is added, to be join- 
ed to other words. 

For implies negation or privation ; as, forbid, forsake, that is, not bid, 
not seek. 

Fore signifies before ; as, see, foresee, that is, see before-hand, fore- 
foot, fore-father. The opposite is hind, as, hind-foot. 

QUESTION, 

(1) What is an Interjection | 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

Gain is a contraction of against ; as, gain-say, or contradict. 

Miss denotes defect, or error ; as, take, mistake, take ivrongly. This 
word is said to be derived from the Saxon mis and Gothic missa, a fault 
or defect ; hence probably the English to miss, or to fail, and amiss, and 
hence also the French mes, as in meconnoitre, to forget. 

In has its usual signification, in instil, imprison, inlay, imprint. 

Over denotes eminence, superiority, inversion, or transition ; as, come, 
overcome, overthrew, oversee, overlook, also excess, as, overhasiy, or too 
hasty. Figuratively, overhear, overtake. 

Out signifies excess or superiority, as out-do, out-run. 

Un, before an adjective, denotes negation or privation ; as, unworthy, 
that is, not worthy. But, before verbs it denotes the undoing or the 
destroying energy or act ; as unsay, that is, retract what you have said. 

Up denotes motion upwards, as start, upstart ; rest in a higher place, 
as, hold, uphold; sometimes subversion, as, set, upset. 

With signifies against ; as, withstand, that is, stand against ; from or 
back, as, withhold, that is, hold from, or back ; withdraw, or draw back. 

Under implies inferiority or defect, as, under-do, undersell. Figura- 
tively, undergo, understand, undertake. 

The following are borrowed from the French counter, en, enter, sur. 

Counter denotes against ; as, counterbalance, that is, balance against. 

En or em, the same as in ; enrich, encourage, embroider ; enrage, 
that is, put in a rage. 

Enter denotes between ; enterline (interline) that is, put a line be- 
tween ; enterlace, that is, intermix ; enterprise, something taken in hand, 
or between hands. 

Sur denotes over or addition ; as, surpass, that is, exceed ; surname, 
surloin. 

The Latin prepositions used in the composition of English words are, 
a, ab, or abs, ad, ante, con, circum, contra, de, di, dis, e, or ex, extra, in, 
inter, intro, ob, per, post, pre, pro,preter, re, retro, se, sub, subter, super, 
trans, ultra. 

A, ab, abs, denote from or away ; as, abstain, that is keep from ; abuse, 
that is, from the use, wrong use. 

Ad signifies to or at ; as, adhere, that is, stick to. 

Ante signifies before ; as, antecedent or going before. 

Circum signifies about ; as, circumspect, that is, looking about. 

Com, con, co, col, from cum, signify together ; as, condole, that is, la- 
ment together ; co-operate, that is, work together. 

Contra denotes against ; as, contradict, that is speak against. 

De signifies down ox from ; as, deject or cast down ; depart, or part 
from. 

Di, Dis, signify asunder ; as, distract or draw asunder. In many 
words dis seems to denote negation or privation ; as, disinter, that is, 
unbury ; displease, that is, not please. 

The French say, de-courager, to ofoVcourage. Their preposition is des. 

E, ex, out of, as, eject or cast out ; exclude or shut out. 

Extra, without, beyond, out of ; as, extravagant, or wandering beyond. 

In, before an adjective, like un, denotes privation ; as, indecent, not 
decent. Before a verb it has its simple meaning. 

Inter signifies among or between ; as, intervene, or come between. In 
interdict, or forbid, it has a negative effect. 

Intro denotes within ; as, introduce, or lead in. 






ETYMOLOGY. 85 

Ob denotes opposition ; as, object, or cast against ; obstacle ; that is, 
something in cpposition. 

Per signifies through or thoroughly ; as, pervade ; that is, pass through ; 
perfect ; that is, thoroughly done. 

Pre, before ; as, prepare, or procure before-hand. 

Post, after ; as, post-script, or written after. 

Pro denotes forth, forward ; as, promote, or move forward, produce, 
or bring forth, 

Preter signifies past or beyond ; as, preternatural, or beyond the course 
of nature. 

Re signifies again, or back ; as, reprint, or print again, repay, or pay 
back. 

Retro signifies backwards ; as, retrograde, or going backwards. 

Se, apart, or without ; as, to secrete, or pi;£ aside, secure, or without 
care. 

Sub signifies under ; as, subscribe, or tm'Ze under. 

Suo/ersignifies itnefer ; as, subterfuous, or flowing under ; subterfuge, 
or escape under. 

Super, above, or orer ; as, superadd, add, over, or above. 

Trans or //-a signifies ouer or beyond ; as, transgress, go over or 6c- 
t/ond ; it denotes/rom one pZace Zo another ; as, transplant, transpose, fyc. 

E7/£ra signifies beyond ; as, itZ£ra marine, or beyond the sea. 

The Greek prepositions and participles compounded with English 
words are a, amphi, anti, apo, hyper, dia, hypo, epi, meto,para, peri, syn, 
hemi. 

A signifies privation ; as, anarchy, or the state of being ivithout gov- 
ernment. 

Amphi, both, or the two ; as, amphibious, or the state of living in tivo 
ways. 

Anti, against ; as, antidote, or something given against poison. 

Apo, from ; as, apogee, or from the earth. 

Hyper, over, and above ; as, hypercritical, that is, over, or too critical. 

Dia, through ; as, diaphoresis, or a wearing through, perspiring. 

Hypo, under, implying ; as, hypocrite, or a person concealing his real 
character. 

Epi, upon ; as, epidemic, or upon the people. 

Meta, denotes change, or transmutation ; as, metamorphose, or change 
the shape. 

Para, beyond, on one side ; thus, paragraph ; that is, a writing by the 
side, (originally used to mean a marginal note) paradox ; that is, an 
opinion beyond, or on one side, an extraordinary opinion ; paraphrase ; 
that is, a phrase that may be placed by the side, an equivalent phrase. 

Peri, about, as, periphrases, or a speech in a round about ivay, a cir- 
cumlocution. 

Syn, sym, syl, with or together ; as, synod, or meeting together, sym- 
pathy, or feeling together. 

Hemi, as well as semi and demi, denotes half, hemisphere, or half of a 
sphere ; semi-circle, or half a circle ; demi-god, half a god. 

OF DERIVATION. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways ; viz. 
1 . Nouns are derived from verbs ; as, from " to love," comes " lover ;'' 
from " to visit, visiter ;" from " to survive, surviver ;" &c. 
8 * 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from ad- 
verbs ; as, from the noun salt, comes " to salt ;" from the adjective 
loarm, " to warm ;" and from the adverb forward, "to forward." Some- 
times they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the con- 
sonant ; as, from " grass, to graze ;" sometimes by adding en ; as, from 
"length, to lengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from " short to 
shorten ; bright to brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns, in the following manner ; Ad- 
jectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding y ; as, from 
health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy ; might, mighty," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns, by adding 
ful ; as, from "joy, joyful ; sin, sinful ; fruit, fruitful," &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding less ; 
as, from " worth, worthless ; care, careless ; joy, joyless," &e. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns, by adding ly ; 
as, from " man, manly ; earth, earthly ; court, courtly," &c. 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the ter- 
mination ness ; as, " white, whiteness ; swift, swiftness ;" sometimes 
by adding th, or t, and making a small change in some of the letters ; 
as, "long, length ; high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding ly, or 
changing It into ly ; and denote the same quality as the adjectives from 
which they are derived ; as, from " base," comes " basely ;" from " slow, 
slowly ;" from " able, ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, 
that it would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossible, to enumer- 
ate them. 



SYNTAX. 

The third part of grammar is Syntax, which treats of the agreement 
and construction of words in a sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a complete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite* verb ; as, 
" Life is short." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences con- 
nected together ; as, " Life is short, and art is long." " Idleness pro- 
duces want, vice, and misery." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so 
the members of sentences may be divided likewise into simple and 
compound members ; for whole sentences, whether simple or compound- 
ed, may become members of other sentences, by means of some addi- 
tional connexion ; as in the following example ; " The ox knoweth his 
owner, and the ass his master's crib ; but Israel doth not know, my peo- 
ple do not consider." This sentence consists of two compounded mem- 
bers, each of which is subdivided into two simple members, which are 
properly called clauses. 

There are three sorts of simple sentences ; the explicative, or ex- 
plaining ; the interrogative, or asking ; the imperative, or com- 
manding. 

An explicative sentence is, when a thing is said to be or not to be, 
to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct manner ; as, " I 
am ; thou writest ; Thomas is loved." If the sentence be negative, the 
adverb not is placed after the auxiliary, or after the verb itself when it 
has no auxiliary ; as, " I did not touch him ;" or, " I touched him not." 

In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is asked, the nom- 
inative case follows the principal verb or the auxiliary ; as, "Was it he ?" 
" Did Alexander conquer the Persians ?" 

In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to do, 
to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise follows the verb or the 
auxiliary ; as, " Go, thou traitor !" " Do thou go ;" " Haste ye away ;" 
unless the verb let be used ; as, " Let us be gone." 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making some- 
times part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the subject, the attri- 
bute, and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute is the thing 
or action affirmed or denied of it ; and the object is the thing affected 
by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the 
verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase, denoting the object, follows 

# Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. 
Verbs in the infinitive mood have no respect to number or person. 



88 SYNTAX. 

the verb ; as, " A wise man governs his passions." Here, a wise man 
is the subject ; governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed ; and his pas- 
sions, the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, concord and government. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in gen- 
der, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech has over another, 
in directing its mood, tense, oy case. 

To produce the agreement and right disposition of words in a sen- 
tence, the following rules and observations should be carefully studied. 

ADJECTIVES. 
RULE T. 

Every Adjective belongs to some noun, expressed or understood. 

JVote I. Adjectives (in prose) should not be used for adverbs ; as, :{ In- 
different honest ; excellent well; miserable poor ;" instead of il Indiffer- 
ently honest; excellently well; miserably poor." " He behaved himself 
conformable to that great example ;" " conformably." " Endeavor to live 
hereafter suitable to a person in thy station ; " suitably." " I can never 
think so very mean of him ;" " meanly." " He describes this river agree- 
able to the common reading ;" "agreeably." " Agreeable to my promise, 
I now write ;" agreeably." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule I. 
She writes very neat. 

[Not proper, because the adjective neat is improperly used to express the 
manner in which the action write is performed. But according to Note 1, 
under Rule I. adjectives should not be used for adverbs. Therefore neat 
should be neatly ; thus, " She writes very neatly.'] 

His property is near exhausted. They lived conformable to the rules 
of prudence. He reasons very clear. He was extreme beloved. He 
speaks very fluent, he reads excellent,, but does not think very cohe- 
rent. He behaved himself submissive. I cannot think so mean of him. 
He was scarce gone when you arrived. 

Note II. When united to an adjective or adverb of degree not ending in 
ly, the word exceeding has ly added to it ; as, " exceedingly great ; exceed- 
ingly well ;" but when it is joined to an adverb of degree or an adjective hav- 
ing that termination, the ly is omitted ; as, " Some men think exceeding 
clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly." " She appeared, on this occasion, 
exceeding lovely." " He acted in this business bolder than was expected.' 7 
" They behaved the noblest, because they were disinterested." They should 
have been " more boldly," "most nobly." — The adjective pronoun such is 
often misapplied ; as, " He was such an extravagant young man, that he 
spent his whole patrimony in a few years ;" it should be, " so extravagant 



SYNTAX. 89 

a young man." u I never before saw such large trees ;' : u sate trees so large." 
When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word such is proper- 
ly applied ; as, " Such a temper is seldom found :" but when degree is sig- 
nified, we use the word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule I. 

They rejected his advice and conducted themselves exceedingly in- 
discreetly. He is a person of great abilities and exceeding upright. 
The conspiracy was easier discovered from its being known to many. 
Not being fully acquainted with the subject, he could affirm no stronger 
than he did. Such an amiable disposition will secure universal regard. 
Such distinguished virtues seldom occur. 

Note III. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives; thus, " They were 
seen wandering about solitarily and distressed ;" " solitary." "The study 
of Syntax should be previously to that of punctuation ;" "previous."* 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule I. 
Conformably to their vehemence of thought was their vehemence of 

* Young persons who study grammar, find it difficult to decide, in par- 
ticular constructions, whether an adjective or an adverb ought to be used. 
A few observations on this point, may serve to inform their judgment, and 
direct their determination. — They should carefully attend to the definitions 
of the adjective and the adverb ; and consider whether, in the case in ques- 
tion, quality or manner is indicated. In the former case an adjective is 
proper ; in the latter, an adverb. A number of examples will illustrate 
this direction, and prove useful on other occasions. 

She looks cold — She looks coldly on him. 

He feels warm — He feels warmly the insult offered to him. 

He became sincere and virtuous — He became sincerely virtuous. 

She lives free from care — He lives freely at another's expense. 

Harriet always appears neat — She dresses neatly. 

Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He has grown greatly in repu- 
tation. 

They now appear happy — They now appear happily in earnest. 

The statement seems exact — The statement seems exactly in point. 

The verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word 
immediately connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb ; and con- 
sequently when this word can be substituted for any other, without varying 
the sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected with 
an adjective. The following sentences elucidate these observations. — 
" This is agreeable to our interest ; That behaviour was not suitable to his 

is 
station ; Rules should be conformable to sense." " The rose smells sweet ; 

is is 

How sweet the hay smells ; How delightful the country appears ! How 

are are was 

pleasant the fields look ! The clouds look dark ; How black the sky looked ! 

is were is 

The apple tastes sour ! How bitter the plums tasted ! He feels happy." 
In all these sentences, we can, with perfect propiety, substitute some ten- 
ses of the verb to be, for the other verbs. But in the following sentences 
we cannot do this : " The dog smells disagreeably ; George feels exquis- 
itely ; How pleasantly she looks at us !" 

The directions contained in this note are offered as useful, not as complete 
and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us ; 
but we must not reject rules because they are attended with exceptions, 



90 SYNTAX. 

gesture. We should implant in the minds of youth, such seeds and 
principles of piety and virtue, as are likely to take soonest and deepest 
root. Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake and thine often infirmi- 
ties. He addressed several exhortations to them suitably to their cir- 
cumstances. 

Note IV. Comparative terminations and adverbs of degree, should not 
be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison; and double 
comparatives and superlatives should be avoided ; such as " A worser con- 
duct;" " On lesser hopes ;" " A more serener temper." They should be, 
ei Worse conduct;" " Less hopes ;" " A more serene temper." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule I. 

'Tis more easier to build two chimneys than to maintain one. The 
tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it 
carries. The nightingale sings ; hers is the most sweetest voice in 
the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, and our 
own happiness. The Supreme Being is the most wisest, the most pow*- 
erfulest, and the most best of beings. Virtue confers the supremest 
dignity on man, and should be his chief desire. His assertion was more 
true than that of his opponent ; nay, the words of the latter were most 
untrue. His work is perfect ; his brother's more perfect ; and his 
father's the most perfect of all. 

Note V. When the comparative degree of an adjective is used, the latter 
term of comparison should not include the former ; and when the superla- 
tive is used, the latter term should never exclude the former. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule I. 

Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. Profane swearing is, of all 
other vices, the most inexcusable. A talent of this kind would, per- 
haps, prove the likeliest of any other to succeed. He spoke with so 
much propriety, that I understood him the best of all the others, who 
spoke on the subject. 

Note VI. The personal pronoun them should never be used in the place 
of the adjective pronoun those; as, " Give me them books;" instead of 
" Give me those books." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule I. 

Go and ask for them articles. How many of them apples did you 
purchase ? Which of them three men came to his assistance ? I will 
give them two quills to my friend. 

Note VII. The demonstrative this and these relate to the things last men- 
tioned, or nearest ; that and those to things first mentioned, or farthest off. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 7, Rule I. 
Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion sinks them beneath 
the brutes ; that, binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perisha- 
ble earth ; this, opens for them a prospect to the skies. 

" And reason raise o'er instinct as you can. 
In that, 'tis God directs, in this, 'tis man," 



SYNTAX. 91 

Note VIII. The adjective pronouns this and that, these and those, should 
agree in number, with the nouns to which they are added ; as, These three 
years," not, " This three years." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 8, Rule I. 

These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. Instead of 
improving yourselves, you have been playing this two hours. Those 
sort of favors did real injury, under the appearance of kindness. 

Note IX. The adjective pronouns each, every, either, (and neither,) agree 
with pronouns and verbs in the singular number only ; as, " Each of you 
has his friends." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 9, Rule I. 

Each of them in their turn receive the benefits to which they are en- 
titled. Ey discussing what relates to each particular, in their order, we 
shall better understand the subject. Every person, whatever be their 
station, are bound by the duties of morality and religion. Every leaf, 
every twig, every drop of water, teem with life. Every man's heart and 
temper is productive of much inward joy or bitterness. Whatever he 
undertakes, either his pride or his folly disgust us. Every man and 
every woman were numbered. Neither of those men seem to have 
any idea that their opinions may be ill founded. 

Note X. The adjective pronouns either and neither, must be used in re- 
ference to two things only ; when more are referred to. any and none should 
be used ; as, " Any of the three," not " Either of the three ;" " None of 
the four," not '•'•Neither of the four." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 10, Rule I. 

Have you recited either of the ten commandments this morning? 
lie presented five copies, but neither cf them were received. 

Note XI. When the adjective is necessarily plural, the noun to which 
it belongs must be plural also; as, " Twenty pounds," not " Twenty pound,'' 
There are, however, some exceptions to this : as, " A hundred head of cat- 
tle," &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 11, Rule I. 

The chasm made by the earthquake was twenty foot broad, and one 
hundred fathom in depth. 

Note XII. The noun means, has the same form in both numbers ; it 
should therefore be used with an adjective pronoun of the singular or plu- 
ral number, as the sense requires. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 12, Rule I. 

Charles was extravagant, and by this mean became poor and despic- 
able. It was by that ungenerous mean that he obtained his end. 



92 SYNTAX. 

Though a promising measure, it is a mean which I cannot adopt. This 
person embraced every opportunity to display his talents ; and by these 
means rendered himself ridiculous. Joseph was industrious, frugal and 
discreet ; and by this means obtained property and reputation. 

Js"ote XIII. The comparative degree of an adjective can be used only in 
reference to two objects; as, " He is the taller of the two." The superla. 
tive degree has reference to three or more ; as, " He is the youngest of the 
twelve." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 13, Rule I. 

He is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest. Trisyllables are 
often accented on the former syllable. 

Kote XIV. When a noun is attended by two or more adjectives, that 
which expresses the most distinguishing quality should be placed next to 
the noun ; as, " A poor old man," not " An old poor man." 

Examples to he corrected under Note 14, Rule I. 

He spoke in a distinct enough manner to be heard by the whole as- 
sembly. Thomas is equipped with a new pair of shoes, and anew pair 
of gloves : he is the son of an old rich man. The two first in the row 
are cherry trees ; the two others are pear trees. 



ARTICLES. 

RULE II. 

The Article refers to its noun or pronoun in limitation. 

The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only, indi- 
vidually or collectively : as, ' : A christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand." 
The definite article, the, may agree with nouns in the singular and plural 
number ; as, " The garden, the houses, the stars." 

The articles are often properly omitted ; when used, ihey should be just- 
ly applied, according to their distinct nature ; as, " Gold is corrupting j 
the sea is green ; a lion is bold," If I saj-, ' ; He behaved with a little rev- 
erence," my meaning is positive. If I say, " He behaved with little rev. 
erence," my meaning is negative. And these two are by no means the 
same, or to be used in the same cases. By the former, I rather praise a 
person ; by the latter, L dispraise him. For the sake of this distinction, 
which is a very useful one, we may better bear the seeming impropriety of 
the article before nouns of number. When I say, " There were few men 
with him," I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsid. 
erable ; whereas, when I say, " There were a few men with him," I evi- 
dently intend to make the most of them. It is correct to say, with the ar. 
tide, " He is in a great hurry," but not " in great hurry." And yet, in this 
expression, " He is in great haste," the article should be omitted; as, it 



SYNTAX. 93 

would be improper to say, " He is in a great haste." A nice discernment, 
and accurate attention to the best usage are necessary to direct us, on these 
occasions. 

Note I. When a noun or pronoun is used in an unlimited sense the arti- 
cle should be omitted ; as, " Man is the noblest work of creation," not " A 
man," &c. The articles are omitted before nouns that imply the different 
virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts 3 metals, herbs, &c. They 
are not prefixed to proper names; as, "Washington," " Jefferson," (be- 
cause those of themselves denote determinate individuals, or particular 
things,) except for the sake of distinguishing a particular family ; as," He 
is a Howard, or of the family of the Howards ;" or by way of eminence ; 
as, " Every man is not a Newton ;" or when some noun is understood ; as 
" He sailed down the (river) Thames, in the (ship) Brittania." 

FALSE SYNTAX, 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule II. 
Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 

[Not proper, because the article an is used before man, which should be 
used in its widest sense. But, according to Note 1st, Rule 2d, " When a 
noun or pronoun is used in an unlimited sense, the article should be omitted." 
Therefore it should stand thus, Reason was given to man to control his 
passions.] 

The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are the four elements of 
the philosophers. Arithmetic is a branch of the mathematics. My 
friend is another sort of a man. He is strong in the faith. I am per- 
secuted this way unto the death. Such qualities honor the nature of a 
man. 

Note II. When a noun is not used in an unlimited sense, an article (or 
some other definitive,) should be prefixed to it ; as, " The wisest and the 
best men sometimes commit errors." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule II. 

We have within us an intelligent principle, distinct from body and 
from matter. Beware of drunkenness ; it impairs understanding. 
There are some evils of life which equally affect both prince and people. 

Note III. In expressing a comparison, if both nouns relate to the same 
thing, the article should not be prefixed to the latter; if to different things, 
it should not be omitted. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule II. 

He is a much better writer than a reader. I should rather wrong a 
friend than foe. 

Note IV. When titles are mentioned merely as titles, the article should 
not be used. 

9 



94 SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule II. 
The king has conferred on him the title of a duke. Our commander' 
presented him the commission of a captain. The highest title in the 
State is the Governor. 

Note V. When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used 
before the sound of a consonant, and an before that of a vowel. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule II. 
This is an historical allusion. This is an hard saying. I have not 
seen such an one. 

Note VI. Inconsistent qualities should not be joined to the same noun v 
as, " The old and new method." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule II. 

The book was read by the old and young. I have both a large and 
small grammar. I saw botli the large and small vessel. 



VERBS. 
RULE III. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and per- 
son ; as, " / learn ; thou art improved ; the birds sing" 

The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule : — What 
signifies good opinions when our practice is bad ? What signify. We may 
suppose there was more impostors than one ; There were more. If thou 
would be healthy, live temperately : If thou wouldst. Thou sees how little 
has been done; Thou seest. Though thou cannot do much for the cause, 
thou may and should do something ; canst not, mayst, and shouldst. Full 
many a flower are born to blush unseen ; is born. A variety of blessings 
have been conferred upon us ; has been. In piety and virtue consist the 
happiness of man ; consists. To these precepts are subjoined a copious se- 
lection of rules and maxims ; is subjoined. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule III. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

[Not proper, because the verb charm, is of the plural number, and does 
not agree with its nominative variety, which is singular. But according to 
Rule 3d, " A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person." 
Therefore charm should be charms ; thus, " A variety of pleasing objects 
charms the eye.] 

Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal of hope 
give consolation. The smiles that encourages severity of judgment, 
hides malice and insincerity. He dare not act contrary to his instruc- 



SYNTAX. 95 

tions. Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. The me- 
chanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown a few centuries 
ago. The number of inhabitants in Great Britain and Ireland do not 
exceed sixteen millions. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight 
some persons. In the conduct of Parmenio, a mixture of wisdom and 
folly were very conspicuous. The inquisitive and curious is generally 
talkative. Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. I am 
sorry to say it, but there was more equivocators than one. The sincere 
is always esteemed. There is many occasions in life, in which silence 
and simplicity is true wisdom. Thou, who art the Author and Bestow- 
er of life, can doubtless restore it also ; but whether thou will please 
to restore it, or not, thou only knows. 

O thou my voice inspire, 

Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

Accept these grateful tears ; for thee they flow, 

For thee that ever felt another's wo. 

Note I. Every verb (excepting the infinitive mood,) must have a nom- 
inative case, either expressed or implied ; as, " Awake ; arise;" thati6, 
" Awake ye; arise ye.''' 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule III. 

If the privileges, to which he has an undoubted right, and he has 
long enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, would be flagrant in- 
justice. These curiosities we have imported from China, and are simi- 
lar to those which were, sometime ago, brought from Africa. 

Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heav'n resigned ? 

Note II. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when an 
address is made to a person, should belong to some verb, either expressed or 
implied; as, " Who wrote this book?" "James;" that is, " James wrote 
it." " To whom thus Adam," that is, " spoke." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule III. 

Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify the 
same thing, the former must be in the genitive case. Virtue, however 
it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ultimately to 
acknowledge and respect genuine merit. 

Note III. Though a noun of multitude, (or signifying many,) may have 
a verb, or a pronoun agreeing with it, either of the singular or plural num- 
ber, yet, regard must be had to the import of the word, as conveying unity 
or plurality of idea ; as, " The meeting was large ;" " The nation is power- 
ful ;" " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief good." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule III. 

The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. The crowd 

were so great that the judges with difficulty made their way through 

them. When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to their 

njpp, In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues pleasure 



96 SYNTAX. 

as its chief good. The church has no power to inflict corporeal punish- 
ment. The fleet were seen sailing- up the channel. The regiment 
consist of a thousand men. The meeting have established several sal- 
utary regulations. The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety. 



ADVERBS. 

RULE IV. 

Adverbs qualify verbs and participles. 

Note I. Adverbs, though they have no properties, should have that posi- 
tion which will render the sentence most perspicuous and elegant. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note I, Rule IV. 

The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

[Not proper, because the adverb perpetually is not in its proper place. 
But, according to Note 1st, Rule 4th, " Adverbs, though they have no prop- 
erties, should have that position which will render the sentence most perspicu- 
ous and elegant." Therefore, perpetually should be placed before in; thus, 
" The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion."] 

He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. William nobly ac- 
ted, though he was unsuccessful. We may happily live, though our 
possessions are small. He offered an apology, which being not admit- 
ted, he became submissive. So well educated a boy gives great hopes 
to his friends. We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. It 
is impossible continually to be at work. One argument should happily 
appear to rise from another. These things should be never separated. 

Note II. The adverbs here, there, and where, ought not to be applied to 
verbs signifying motion ; as, " He came here hastily ;" " They rode there 
with speed j" instead of" He came hither," " They rode thither," &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule IV. 

It is reported that the prince will come here to-morrow. George is 
active ; he walked there in less than an hour. Where are you all going 
in such haste ? Whither have they been since they left the city ? 

Note III. Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or are equiv- 
alent to an affirmative ; as, u Nor did they not perceive him ;" that is, " they 
did perceive him." " His language, though inelegant, isnot ungrammati- 
cal ;" that is, " it is grammatical." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule IV. 

Neither riches, nor honors, nor no such perishing goods can satisfy 
the desires of an immortal spirit. Be honest, nor take no shape nor 
semblance of disguise. We need not nor do not confine his operations 
to narrow limits. There cannot be nothing more insignificant than 
vanity. Nothing never affected her so much as this misconduct of her 



SYNTAX. 07 

child. Do not interrupt me yourselves, nor let no one disturb my re- 
tirement. The measure is so unexceptionable, that we cannot by no 
means permit it. I have received no information on the subject, neith- 
er from him nor from his friend. 



PARTICIPLES. 
RULE V. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or are governed by 
prepositions. 

RULE VI. 
^Adverbs of degree qualify adjectives and other adverbs. 

PRONOUNS. 
RULE VII. 

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in person, 
number, and gender. 

[The relative being of the same person that the antecedent is, requires 
the verb which agrees with it, to be of the same person that it would be to 
agree with the antecedent ; as, l< Thou who lovest wisdom walkest upright- 
ly ; He icho loves wisdom, walks uprightly."] 

Note I. All pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, 
in person, number and gender. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1 , Rule VII. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment which was with her in the house, and 
put them on Jacob. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun them, is of the plural number, and 
therefore does not properly represent the noun raiment, which is singular. 
But, according to Note 1st, Rule 7th, " Ml pronouns mtist agree with the 
nouns for which they stand, in person, number, and gender." Therefore, 
them should be it ; thus, " Rebecca took goodly raiment, which was with 
her in the house, and put it upon Jacob." 

The male among birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the color 
of its species. The wheel killed another man, which is the sixth which 
have lost their lives by this means. The fair sex whose task is not to 
mingle in the labors of public life, has its own part assigned it to act. 
The mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the ac- 
tivity of his thoughts. I do not think any one should incur censure fcr 
being tender of their reputation. Thou, who has been a witness of the 
fact, canst give an account of it In religious concerns, or what is 

9* 



98 SYNTAX. 

conceived to be such, every man must stand, or fall, by the decision of 
the Great Judge. 

Note II. The relative pronoun, who, should be applied only to persons 
(and to other animals personified,) which to other animals, and inanimate 
things. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule VII. 

I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. The exercise of 
reason appears as little in these sportsmen, as in the beasts whom they 
sometimes hunt, and by whom they are sometimes hunted. They which 
seek wisdom, will certainly find her. The wheel killed another man, 
which is the sixth that has lost his life by this means. 

Note III. The relative that (applied to persons) is preferable to xcho in 
the following cases ; — First, after the interrogative who ; as, " Who that has 
any sense of religion, would have argued thus ?" Secondly, when persons 
make but part of the antecedent ; as, " The woman and the estate, that be- 
came his portion, were rewards far beyond his desert. Thirdly, after an 
adjective in the superlative degree, — and after the adjective same, that is 
generally used in preference to ivho or tohich ; — as, " Charles XII. king of 
Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the world ever saw." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule VII. 

Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testament. 
Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. 
The men and things which he has studied have not improved his morals. 

Note IV. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, the rela- 
tive which should be used, and not xcho. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule VII. 

Having once disgusted him, he could never regain the favor of Nero, 
who was indeed another name for cruelty. Flattery, whose nature is 
to deceive and betray, should be avoided as the poisonous adder. 

Note V. The relative pronoun should be placed as near its antecedent 
as possible, to prevent ambiguity in the sense. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule VII. 

The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry ; who had never 
before committed so unjust an action. There are millions of people in 
the empire of China whose support is derived almost entirely from rice. 

Note VI. When the antecedent only implies the idea of persons-, and ex- 
presses them by some circumstance or epithet, which should be used, and 
not who ; as, " The faction which," &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule VII. 

He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. The court, 
who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary. 



SYNTAX. 99 

Note VII. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of the noun, 
should not be employed in the same part of the sentence ; as, " The king 
he is just." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 7, Rule VII. 

Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously. The 
cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue. 



RULE VIII. 

Every Adjective Pronoun belongs to some noun or pronoun 
expressed or understood. [See Examples under Rule I.] 



VERBS. 

RULE IX. 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Who did they entertain so freely ? 

[Not proper, because the relative who, which is the object of the transi- 
tive verb did entertain, is in the nominative case. But, according to Rule 
Oth, " Transitive verbs govern the objective case." Therefore, who should 
be whom ; thus, •'• Whom did they entertain so freely ?" 

They, who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, 
cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. Who have I reason to 
love so much as this friend of my youth ? Ye, who were dead, hath he 
quickened. The man who he raised from obscurity is dead. He and 
they we know, but Avho are you ? She that is idle and mischievous, re- 
prove sharply. Who did they send to him on so important an errand ? 
That is the friend who yon must receive cordially, and whom yen can- 
not esteem too highly. He invited my brother and I to see and exam- 
ine his library. He who committed the offence, you should correct : 
not I who am innocent. 

PARTICIPLES. 

RULE X. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs have from 
which they are derived; as, "I am weary with hearing him;" 
" She is instructing us ;" " The tutor is admonishing Charles" 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule X. 
Suspecting ye of unfairness, I was studious to avoid all intercourse. 
[Not proper, because the pronoun ye, which is the object of the participle 



100 SYNTAX. 

suspecting^ is in the nominative case. But, according to Rule 10th, " Par- 
ticiples have the same government as the verbs have from which they are deri- 
ved." Therefore, ye should be you; thus, Suspecting you of unfairness, I 
was studious to avoid all intercourse.] 

Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. Suspecting not only 
ye, but they also, I was studious to avoid all intercourse. I could not 
avoid considering, in some degree, they as enemies to me ; and he as a 
suspicious friend. From having exposed his self too freely in different 
climates, he entirely lost his health. 

Note I. When an Article, Possessive Adjective Pronoun, or Noun in 
the possessive case, is prefixed to a Participle, it becomes a Noun, and 
should be followed by the Preposition of, if there be any following word 
which needs government. Both must be used, or both omitted. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule X„ 

By observing of truth, you will command esteem as well as secure 
peace, He prepared them for this event, by the sending to them proper 
information. A person may be great or rich by chance ; but cannot be 
wise or good, without the taking pains for it. Nothing could have 
made her so unhappy as the marrying a man who possessed such prin- 
ciples. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 
RULE XL 

Nouns and Pronouns connected by conjunctions must be in 
the same case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Exam/pies to be corrected under Rule XL 

You and us enjoy many privileges. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun us, which is in the objective case, is 
connected to you, which is in the nominative. Bui, according to Rule 11th, 
u Nouns and pronouns connected by conjunctions must be in the same case.'* 
Therefore us should be we; thus, You and toe enjoy many privileges.] 

My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. She and him are 
very unhappily connected. Between him and I there is some disparity 
of years ; but none between him and she. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

RULE XII. 
Prepositions govern the objective case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples to be corrected under Rule XII. 

He laid the suspicion upon some body, 1 know not who in the com- 
pany. 



SYNTAX. 101 

[Not proper, because the pronoun who, which is the object of the prepo- 
sition upon, is in the nominative ease. But, according- to Rule 12th, " Pre- 
positions govern the objective, case" Therefore who should be whom ; thus, 
I know not wham in the company.] 

I hope it is not I who he is displeased with. To poor we, there is 
not much hope remaining-. Does that boy know who he speaks to ? 
Who docs he offer such language to ? It was not he they were so an- 
gry with. What concord can subsist between those who commit 
crimes, and they who abhor them ? The person who I travelled with, 
has sold his horse which he rode on during our journey. Who did he 
receive that intelligence from ? 

Note I. The preposition to is used before Nouns of place, when they 
follow Verbs, and participles of motion ; but at is generally used after the 
Verb to be. The Preposition in is set before countries, cities and large 
towns ; but before villages, single houses, and cities, which are in distant 
countries, preceded by a Neuter Verb, at is used. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XII. 

I have been to London, after having resided a year at France ; and I 
now live in Islington. They have just landed in Hull, and are going 
for Liverpool. They intend to reside some time at Ireland. 

[For further remarks on the use of Prepositions, see page 82.] 



RULE XIII. 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case is governed by 
the noun it possesses ; as, " My father's house ;" " Man's hap- 
piness ;" " Virtue's reward." 

Note I. In writing the possessive case, its proper form should be obser- 
ved. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note I, Rule XIII. 

His brothers offence will not condemn him. 

[Not proper, because the noun brothers, which is intended for the singu- 
lar number possessive case, is in the plural number, and has not the proper 
form of that case. But, according to Note 1st, Rule 13th, " In writing the 
possessive case, its proper form should be observed.'' Therefore, brothers 
should be brother's; thus, His brother's offence will not condemn him.] 

I will not destroy the city for ten sake. Nevertheless, Asa his heart 
was perfect with the Lord. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, 
are natures gifts' for mans advantage. A mans manner's frequently 
influence his fortune. Wisdoms precepts' form the good mans inter- 
est and happiness. 

Note II. When several Nouns in the possessive case come together, the 
apostrophe with s, is annexed to the last, and understood after the others, 



102 SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule XIII. 

It was the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great calami- 
ties. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation, was that of fishermen. 

Note III. To avoid a recurrence of hissing sounds, the s, is sometimes 
omitted, and the apostrophe only retained ; as, " Achillis' wrath." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule XIII. 

And he cast himself down at Jesus feet. Moses rod was turned into 
a serpent. For Herodias sake, his brother Philips wife. If ye suffer 
for righteousness's sake, happy are ye. Ye should be subject for con- 
science's sake. 



RULE XIV. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, ad- 
jective, or participle. 

Note I. When a verb in the infinitive mood follows make, need, see, bid, 
dare, feel, hear, let, and some other words, the sign to should be omitted ; 
as, I make him study. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XIV. 
I nee d not to solicit him to do a kind action. 

[Not proper, because the sign to is inserted before the verb solicit, which 
follows need. But, according to Note 1st, Rule I4th, " When a verb in 
the infinitive mood follows make, need, see, fyc. the sign to shoidd be omitted." 
Therefore, to should be omitted ; thus, I need not solicit him to do a kind 
action.] 

It is better to live on a little, than outlive a great deal. You ought 
not walk too hastily. I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. I 
dare not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give offence. I have seen 
some young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. It is a 
great support to virtue, when Ave see a good mind to maintain its pa- 
tience and tranquillity under injuries and affliction, and to cordially for- 
give its oppressors. 

RULE XV. 

Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same mood 
and tense, and of the same form of conjugation. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XV. 

Did he not tell me his fault and entreated me to forgive him. 



SYNTAX. 103 

[Not proper, because the word entreated, which is of the common form of 
conjugation, is connected to did tell, which is of the emphatic form. But, 
according to Rule 15th, " Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the 
same mood and tense, and of the same form of conjugation." Therefore, en- 
treated should be entreat ; thus, Did he not tell me his fault, and entreat me 
to forgive him.] 

Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind. If 
he understand the subject, and attends to it industriously, he can scarce- 
ly fail of success. If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is 
gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine and goeth into the 
mountains and seeketh that which is gone astray ? To be moderate in 
our views and proceeding temperately in pursuit of them, is the best 
way to ensure success. 

Note I. When the sense requires the Verbs to be of different rnoods or 
tenses, the nominative must be repeated ; — then the Conjunction will con- 
nect two members of the sentence, not two words. 

Examples to be corrected wider Note 1, Rule XV. 

Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce virtue. 
He does not want courage, but is defective in sensibility. These peo- 
ple have indeed acquired great riches, but do not command esteem. 
Our season of improvement is short ; and whether used or not, will soon 
pass away. He might have been happy, and is now fully convinced 
of it. 

Note II. When a Disjunctive occurs between a singular Noun or Pro- 
noun, and a plural one, the Verb is made to agree with the plural Noun or 
Pronoun, which should be placed next to the Verb. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule XV. 

Both of the scholars, or one of them at least, was present at the trans- 
action. Some parts of the ship and cargo were recovered ; but nei- 
ther the sailors nor the captain was saved. The cares of this life, or 
the deceitfulness of riches, has choked the seeds of virtue in many a 
promising mind. 

Note III. When two pronouns, or a noun and a pronoun of different 
persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree in number and 
person with the word nearest to it. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule XV. 

Either thou, or I art greatly mistaken, in our judgment on this sub- 
ject. I or thou am the person who must undertake the business pro- 
posed. 



RULE XVI. 

A Perfect Participle, unconnected ivith an auxiliary, relates 
to the noun or pronoun which it qualifies or describes. 



104 SYNTAX. 

RULE XVII. 

Intransitive, Passive, and Neuter Verbs take the same case 
after as before them, when both words signify the same per- 
son, or thing. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XVII. 

I would act the same part if I were him, or in his situation. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun him, which follows the neuter verb 
were, is in the objective case, and does not agree in case with the pronoun 
/. But, according to Rule ]7th, " Intransitive, Passive, and Neuter Verbs 
take the same case after as before them, when both words signify the same per- 
son, or thing.''' Therefore , him should be he ; thus, If I were he or in his 
situation.] 

Be composed : it is me — you have no cause for fear. I know not 
whether it were them who conducted the business ; but I am certain 
it was not him. He so much resembled my brother, that at first sight, 
I took it to be he. After all their professions, is it possible to be them ? 
If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been ? Who do you 
think him to be ? Whom do the people say that we are ? 



RULE XVIII. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, meaning the 
same thing, and having the same grammatical relation, are put 
by apposition in the same case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XVIII. 
I paid the money to the merchant, he that bought your house. 

[Not proper, because tbe pronoun he, which is in apposition with mer- 
chant, is in the nominative case. But, according to Rule 18th, " Two or 
more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, meaning the same thing, and having the 
same grammatical relation, are put by apposition in the same case." There- 
fore, he should be him; thus, I paid the money to the merchant, him that 
bought your house.] 

We should fear and obey the Author of our being, even He who has 
the power to reward or punish us forever. They shew Varus, he that 
was mentioned before. 



RULE XIX. 

A verb, having two or more nominative words, connected by 
the copulative and, must be of the plural form. 



SYNTAX. 105 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XIX. 
Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

[Not proper, because the verb removes, which is of the singular form, has 
two nominatives connected by the copulative and. But, according to Rule 
lPth, " A verb, having two or more nominative words, connected by the copu- 
lative and, must be of the plural form." Therefore, removes should be re- 
mote ; thus, Patience and diligence, like faith, remove mountains.] 

Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. Wisdom, vir- 
tue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. In unity consists 
the welfare and security of every society. Time and tide waits for no 
man. His politeness and good disposition, was, on failure of their ef- 
fect, entirely changed. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, 
excels pride and ignorance under costly attire. 



RULE XX. 

A verb, having two or more nominatives of the singular 
number, connected by the disjunctive or, or nor, must be of the 
singular form. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples to be corrected under Rule XX. 

Neither custom nor analogy support this opinion. 

[Not proper, because the verb support is of the plural form, and therefore 
does not agree with its two nominatives, custom and analogy taken sepa- 
rately. But, according to Rule 20th, " A verb having two or more nomina- 
tives of the singular number, connected by the disjunctive or, or nor, must be 
of the singular form." Therefore, support should be supports ; thus, Nei- 
ther custom nor analogy supports this opinion.] 

Man's happiness or misery, are, in a great measure, put into his own 
hands. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move 
merely as they are moved. Speaking impatiently to servants, or any 
thing that betrays inattention or ill-humor, are certainly criminal. 
There are many faults in spelling, which neither analogy nor pronun- 
ciation justify. When sickness, infirmity or reverse of fortune affect 
us, the sincerity of friendship is proved. 



RULE XXI. 

When a noun or pronoun has no verb to agree with it, but 
is placed before a participle, it is in the nominative case abso- 
lute. 

10 



106 SYNTAX. 

RULE XXII. 

When a direct address is made to a person or thing, the 
noun or pronoun is in the nominative case independent. 

RULE XXIII. 

The Infinitive Mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes the 
subject of a verb, and therefore its nominative. 

Note I. When the sentence conveys a unity of idea, the Verb must be 
of the singular number; but v/hen it conveys a plurality of meaning, it 
must be plural. The Verb must always be singular, when the nominative 
sentences, or parts of sentences, are preceded by the Conjunction that. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XXIII. 

To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all men. 

[Not proper, because the verb arc, is of the plural number, and does not 
properly agree with the preceding words which convey a unity of idea, and 
form its nominative. But, according to Note 1st, Rule 23d, " IVJien the sen- 
tence conveys a unity of idea the zert must be of the jingular number," &c. 
Therefore, are ought to be is ; thus, To live soberly, righteously, and pious- 
ly, is required of all men.] 

To do unto all men, as we would that they, in similar circumstances, 
should do unto us, constitute the great principle of virtue. From a fear 
of the world's censure, to be ashamed of the practice of precepts, which 
the heart approves and embraces, mark a feeble and imperfect charac- 
ter. The erroneous opinions which we form concerning happiness and 
misery, gives rise to all the mistaken and dangerous passions that em- 
broils our life. That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds 
and bodies, to be just and kind to our fellow creatures, and to be pious 
and faithful to Him that made us, admit not of any doubt in a rational 
and well informed mind. To be of a pure and humble mind, to exer- 
cise benevolence towards others, to cultivate piety towards God, is the 
sure means of becoming peaceful and happy. The possession of our 
senses entire, of a sound understanding, of friends and companions, are 
often overlooked ; though it would be the ultimate wish of many, who, 
as far as we can judge, deserves it as much as ourselves. 



OAT THE USE OF THE MOODS AJYD TENSES. 

Note L In the use of words and phrases which in point of time relate to 
each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed. Instead of 
fcaying, " the Lord hath given and the Lord hath taken away," we should 
say, " the Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away." Instead of, " I re- 
member the family more than twenty years," it should be, " I have remem- 
bered the family more than twenty years." 



SYNTAX. 107 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note I. 

The next new-year's day I shall be at school three years. And he 
that was dead, sat up and began to speak. I should be obliged to him 
if he will gratify me in that particular. And the multitude wondered, 
when they saw the dumb to speak, the maimed to be whole, the lame to 
walk, and the blind seeing. In the treasury belonging to the Cathe- 
dral, in this city, is preserved with the greatest veneration, for upwards 
of six hundred years, a dish which they pretend to be made of emerald. 

Note II. All Verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention or command, 
must invariably be followed by the Present tense, and not the Perfect, of 
the Infinitive. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2. 

I always intended to have rewarded my son according to his merit. 
It would on reflection, have given me great satisfaction to relieve him 
from that distressed situation. It required so much care, that I thought 
I should have lost it before I reached home. We have done no more 
than it was our duty to have done. He would have assisted one of his 
friends, if he could do it without injuring the other ; but as that could 
not have been done, he avoided all interference. These enemies of 
Christianity were confounded, whilst they were expecting to have 
found an opportunity to have betrayed its author. His sea-sickness 
was so great that I feared he would have died before our arrival. If 
these persons had intended to deceive, they would have taken care to 
liave avoided what would expose them to the objections of their oppo- 
nents. 

Note III. Some conjunctions require the indicative form of the sub- 
junctive mood, and some the elliptical, after them. It is a good general 
rule, that when something doubtful is expressed, with an allusion to future 
time, the elliptical form ought to be used : as, "he will not be pardoned, 
■unless he repent." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3. 
If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind, and be useless to 
others. Though he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not comply, 
unless he advances more forcible reasons. I shall walk in the fields 
to-day unless it rains. As the governess were present, the children 
behaved properly. She disapproved the measure, because it were very 
improper. Though he be high, he hath respect to the lowly. 

Note IV. Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily 
f equire the elliptical form of the Subjunctive Mood ; and if, with but fol- 
lowing it, when futurity is denoted, also require the elliptical form. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4. 

Despise not any condition lest it happens to be your own. Let him 
jfhat is sanguine, take heed lest he miscarries. Take care that thou 



108 SYNTAX, 

breakest not any of the established rules. If he does but intimate his 
desire, it will be sufficient to produce obedience. At the time of his 
return, if he is but expert in the business, he will find employment. 
If he do but speak to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention. 
If he be but in health, I am content. Though he do praise her, it is 
only for her beauty. If thou dost not forgive, perhaps thou wilt not be 
forgiven. If thou do sincerely believe, the truths of religion, act ac- 
cordingly. Unless he learns faster he will be no scholar. Though he 
falls he shall not be utterly cast down. On condition that he comes, I 
will consent to stay. 

Note V. The Imperfect Tense, and all the compound Tenses of the 
Subjunctive, retain the same termination with the Conjunction, that they 
would, in any other mood, without it. 

This Note applies to all Verbs except the Neuter Verb Be ; this verb, when 
in the Subjunctive Mood, varies its form from the Indicative, in the Imper- 
fect as well as in the Present Tense. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5. 

If thou have promised, be faithful to thy engagement. Though he 
have proved his right to submission, he is too generous to exact it. 
Unless he have improved, he is unfit for the office. If thou had suc- 
ceeded, perhaps thou would not be the happier for it. Though thou 
did injure him, he harbors no resentment. Was he ever so great and 
opulent, this conduct would debase him. Was I to enumerate all her 
virtues, it would look like flattery. Though I was perfect, yet I would 
not presume. Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up hon- 
orably. Though thou might have foreseen the danger, thou could not 
have avoided it. 

Note VI. When the qualities of different things are compared, the lat- 
ter Noun or Pronoun, is not governed by the Conjunction than or as, but 
agrees with a Verb, or is governed by a Verb or a Preposition expressed or 
understood ; as, " thou art wiser than I ;" that is, " than I am." " They 
loved him more than me ;" that is, " more than they loved me." " The 
sentiment is well expressed by Plato ; but much better by Solomon than 
him ;" that is, " than by him." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6. 

In some respects, we have had as many advantages as them ; but in 
the article of a good library, they have had a greater privilege than us. 
The undertaking was much better executed by his brother than he. 
They are much greater gainers than me by this unexpected event. 
They know how to write as well as him ; but he is a much better gram- 
marian than them. Though she is not so learned as him, she is as 
much beloved and respected. These people, though they possess 
more shining qualities, are not so proud as him, or so vain as her. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
To be corrected by the preceding Rules and Notes. 
Several alterations and additions have been made to the work, The 



SYNTAX. 109 

first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second. He 
is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as his companion. 
Thou hearest the sound of the wind, but thou canst not tell whence it 
cometh, and whither it goeth. Neither has he, nor any other persons, 
suspected so much dissimulation. The court of France, or England 
was to be the umpire. In the reign of Henry II. all. foreign commodi- 
ties were plenty in England. There is no talent so useful towards suc- 
cess in business, or which puts men more out of the reach of accidents, 
than that quality generally possessed by persons of cool temper, and is, 
in common language, called discretion. The first project was to short- 
en discourse, by cutting polysyllables into one. I shall do all I can to 
persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have. 
The greatest masters of critical learning* differ among one another. 
Micaiah said, if thou certainly return in peace, then hath not the Lord 
spoken by me. I do not suppose, that we Britons want a genius more 
than the rest of our neighbors. The deaf man whose ears were open- 
ed, and his tongue loosened, doubtless glorified the great Physician. 
Groves, fields and meadows, are at any season of the year, pleasant to 
look upon ; but never so much as in the opening of the spring. The 
multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace. The 
intentions of some of these Philosophers, nay, of many, might and prob- 
ably were good. It is an unanswerable argument of a refined age, the 
wonderful civilities that have passed between the nation of authors, 
and that of readers. It was an unsuccessful undertaking ; which, al- 
though it has failed, is no objection at all to an enterprize so well con- 
certed. The reward is his due, and it has already, or will hereafter, be 
given to him. By intercourse with wise and experienced persons, who 
know the world, we may improve and rub off the rust of a private and 
retired education. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, 
than knowledge. No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the 
mortification, as he has done to-day. The Romans gave, not only the 
freedom of the city, but capacity for employments, to several towns in 
Gaul, Spain, and Germany. Such writers have no other standard on 
which to form themselves, except what chances to be fashionable and 
popular. Whatever we do secretly, shall be displayed and heard in 
the clearest light. To the happiness of possessing a person of such 
uncommon merit, Boethius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the 
highest honor his county could bestow. 

The pupil should now be required to apply the principles inculcated 
in the preceding Rules, Notes, &c. in pointing out and correcting 
errors in paragraphs of a more promiscuous character, and of greater 
length. He should be required not only to point out and correct such 
errors, but to state his reasons for so doing. For this purpose the fol- 
lowing Exercises, selected from a late work on Rhetoric, are present- 
ed. To aid such as have not the assistance of a teacher, the more ob- 
jectionable words and phrases are printed in Italic. 

The Caret \ denotes that some word or phrase is improperly omitted. 

Improprieties in the use of the JYoun, fyc. 

" Some men are susceptible of emotions of beauty in view of objects 
10* 



110 



SYNTAX. 



and scenes around them, others, the circumstances of whose life have 
been different, look upon the same objects and scenes without any 
emotion of this nature." 

"Here then, is found the united voice of men of the present age, and 
the artist knows, that so far as his production exhibits what excites 
emotions of beauty in this painting, it is in agreement with the gener- 
al opinion of men now living, or the standard of the taste of the age." 

" By construction, as the word is applied to sentences, is meant the 
forming of the sentence in such a manner, that the relations and con- 
nexion between the different parts of the sentence, may be made 
known." 

" Hence then the caution may be given, To avoid ambiguity in the 
construction of the adjective, let it be placed as near as practicable to 
the noun it is intended to qualify." 

"The persevering thought, that has now been enjoined, has done more 
towards enlightening and improving men, than all the brilliant sallies 
and sudden efforts of genius." 



Improprieties in the use of the Adjective, the Adjective Pronoun, £>*c. 

" In the first part, a writer is regarded as addressing himself to the 
understanding of his readers, and the importance of being able to think 
well, as including the number and value of ow thoughts and the proper 
arrangement of them, is considered." 

" He will be mindful, that the extent of his knowledge will depend 
more on the manner of his reading, [his manner of reading] than on the 
amount read, and on his attention to those facts which fall under his 
observation, more than on the number of these facts." 

" There can be no doubt, that the practice of most young writers is 
contrary to what is here recommended. Immediately upon selecting a 
subject on which to write, they read what others have written, and thus 
instead of trusting to the resources of their own minds, they look to 
books for their thoughts and opinions." 

" Suppose further, that these same individuals, in the course of their 
journey, stop to examine a gallery of paintings." 

"It will be shewn in the examination of the ornaments of style, that, 
whether we regard them as parts of the literary production in which 
they are found, or as tending to produce some designed effect, Ave may 
in part account for the emotion of taste which they excite, on this same 
principle of adaptation." 

" With the design of exhibiting the skill which is requisite, when 
language is thus used figuratively, a few more examples will now be 
given." 

" Now should we say of the image, that there is much naturalness in 
its appearance, and of the dancer, that there is much naturalness in his 
movements, we should use the word in the same sense in which it is 
here applied to style." 



SYNTAX. Ill 

Improprieties in the use of the Article. 

" As an example of a well executed conclusion, the following passage, 
which is found at the close of an eulogy on Adams and Jefferson, may- 
be cited." 

" In reading the story of the two friends, Damon and Pythias, who 
were the objects of the cruelty of Dionysius, we are struck with the 
closeness of their friendship." 

" This is an historical allusion. In most instances of this kind the 
design is to illustrate." 

" Incorrectness in the use of words and in the construction of sen- 
tences, like inaccuracies of pronunciation, is considered as evidence of 
careless intellectual habits and an unfinished education. There is also 
something of the nature of incivility, when a writer asks us for our at- 
tention, and addresses us in a language we cannot understand." 

" Lawyers, and those of other professions, have many terms in use, 
whicli are peculiar to the profession, and which are not expected to be 
understood by those, unacquainted with its mysteries," 



Improprieties m the use of the Verb, fyc. 

"The next transition from France to Holland is also founded on con- 
trast and need not be stated." 

" Other emotions are included under what is called the passions, and 
we speak of the objects whicli excite them as objects of desire or aver- 
sion, of fear or remorse, or of some other passion." 

" The only caution then which need be given, is the general one, that 
whenever adjective pronouns are used as connectives, and the noun to 
which they belong is left to be supplied by the reader, care should be 
had, that this noun be obvious." 

" This, as was remarked when treating of the metaphor, aids the dis- 
tinctness of the view, and what was there said need not be repeated." 

" What has been mentioned as conducive to its attainment, are but 
different ways in which the excited feelings manifest themselves." 

" The word is here used as referring to a common standard, which is 
found in the mind of every man whose taste is not perverted and vitia- 
ted" 

"Here he sees presented before him, the representations of those 
beautiful forms of nature, the knowledge of which, without this assist- 
ance, he could have obtained only by frequent and tedious processes 
of observation and analysis." 

Improper use of the Tenses. [See Note 1, page 106.] 

" Should we read the production of one who is justly accounted a 
good writer, we should be conscious that our attention had been enga- 
ged, — that we had been pleased, and if the subject ivas one which could 
interest the feelings, that we had been moved. If from being conscious 



1 12 SYNTAX. 

of these effects we are led to search for their causes, we shall find that 
our attention has been engaged by the valuable thoughts and just reas- 
onings that have been exhibited ; we have been pleased by what has 
given exercise to our imagination." 

" Hence the fondness for metaphysical and moral investigations and 
for the exact sciences, which is ever felt by those, who have excelled 
as sound reasoners." 

" The student, with his relaxed and enfeebled system, could not ex- 
pect to vie with the hardy laborer in a trial of strength. But let him 
leave his study — let him inure himself to toil, and he may gradually 
acquire an equal hardiness of constitution and strength of muscle." 

" It is said, that when the great Newton was asked, how he was en- 
abled to make the greatest discoveries that a mortal has ever commu- 
nicated to his fellow men ; he answered, by thinking."- 

" The writer [speaker] seems aware of the thoughts and feelings 
which had taken possession of every heart, and giving utterance to 
these thoughts and feelings, he arrests with consummate skill the at- 
tention, and conciliates the good will of those whom he addresses." 

" This individual may have been originally constituted with as much 
sensibility as Addison ; but such have been the circumstances around 
him, — such has been his lot in life, that this sensibility has been lost." 

" Had this picture existed through successive ages, and been uniform- 
ly admired, this would give it higher authority, and the artist, in con- 
forming his work to it, would know, that what he produced, is in agree- 
ment with the opinions of men of different ages of the world." 

" Locke was an accurate thinker, and a close reasoner. His judg- 
ment, where he forms an opinion, is based on careful and minute ex- 
amination. Hence his taste was severe. He used but little ornament, 
and that simple and illustrative. Fearful also that it might betray him, 
he condemned the use of it in the writings of others. Burke, on the 
contrary, was a man of much refinement. He possessed extensive class- 
ical attainments — had large and liberal views of subjects, and suscepti- 
ble to a high degree of emotions of taste, he is ever prone to indulge 
in the excitement of these emotions. But then he approves only of 
what is truly beautiful and sublime, and his judgment of what is fitted 
to excite these emotions, has evidently felt the influence of his enlarged 
and liberal views on other subjects, or, in other words, of his intellect- 
ual habits." 

" The attention of the others being called to it, they express the 
same opinion, and again they unite in calling the individual who has 
pointed out the painting, a man of taste." 

" The traveller, in passing the river Rubicon, might regard it as a 
common stream, but should it be told him, that he was standing where 
Cesar stood, when he decided the destinies of Rome, the scene before 
him from association excites an emotion of sublimity." 

" This would have been pursuing the metaphor too far ; it would have 
been called forced, and good taste would condemn it." 



SYNTAX. 113 

" Eve parts from them, as from friends with whom she had long been 
familiar, and whom she fondly loves" 

" We seem to hear him thinking aloud, and his thoughts flow forth 
to us in the same order, and with the same clearness, with which they 
have sprung up in his own mind." 

" Were it asked, in what way the awkward dancer may attain the 
easy and graceful movements of the other, it would be answered, by 
pursuing a similar course of instruction and practice." 

"Were men simply intellectual beings, and were it thr- only design 
of the writer to convey instruction to his readers, what has been said in 
the preceding chapter would be all that is required, preparatory to the 
consideration of the qualities of a good style." 

"The standard of taste, then, is the agreeing voice of such as are 
susceptible of emotions of beauty, both of those who have lived in past 
ages, and of those now existing." 

" As we have seen in the last chapter, it is by the aid of the imagina- 
tion that the artist is able to design those objects and scenes, which 
are the creations of his own mind." 

"It has been the design of the preceding chapters to treat of the prin- 
ciples and rules of good writing." 



Improprieties in the formation of several of the Tenses. 

"Of these ornaments of style, some have been classified and a re- 
ceived appropriate names." 

" In saying that these words are in agreement with each other, refer- 
ence is had to the use of them in their common application, and this is 
necessary, that the metaphor be well supported." 

" But our ennui and disgust in reading their works, do not arise from 
the perspicuity of their expressions, but from their saying what had bet- 
ter have been omitted." 



Improper use of the elliptical form of the Subjunctive Mood, fyc. 

" Unless the writer have some object, at which he aims, as the goal 
he would reach, he will ever be liable to go astray, a lose himself and 
his readers." 

" In determining whether an object be familiarly known, regard must 
be had to those who are addressed." 

"It is not enough that the productions of good writers be read. 
They must be studied as models of style." 

" This liberty is given them, and it is expected in return, that they 
be uniform in the use of the word in the sense defined." 

"Perspicuity is the next quality of a good style to be considered. 
It implies that the expressions used, be such as to convey, and clearly 
convey, the true meaning of the writer." 



114 SYNTAX. 

"If the subject do not require it — if the form of sentence do not have 
its foundation in the thought itself, it will have the air of something 
artificial, and instead of exerting an influence favorable to vivacity, rt 
will have a different effect." 

"But if the eulogium be excessive, and the writer indulges himself in 
praise and high commendation, an effect is often produced different 
from that designed." 



Improprieties in the use of the Adverb, fyc. 

" At the close of the work also exercises are found the analysis of 
which may call forth the skill of the learner, and make him familiar with 
the rules which are stated." 

" The Grammarian gives us rules for the attainment of correct- 
ness in the use of language ; and Logic informs us of the different 
modes of conducting an argument. The intellectual philosopher also 
explains to us the phenomena of mind, particularly of those emotions 
with which taste is connected." 

" And where can this skill be better acquired than in the study of 
those sciences, which are made up of abstract reasonings, and which 
furnish instances of close and long continued trains of argumentation." 

" In the treatment of intricate subjects, where there are many divi- 
sions, and where it is of importance, that the order and connexion of 
each part should be carefully observed, to state the divisions is the bet- 
ter course." 

" In ancient systems of Rhetoric, many rules are given to aid the 
writer in forming his plan ; but it is believed that these rules are but of 
little value." 

" Still, as has been intimated, there may be skill shewn in the arrange- 
ment of the arguments, and one may happily appear to arise from an- 
other." 

" As the result of past experience of emotions, certain principles seem 
fixed in the mind, and where taste is called into exercise, it is the im- 
mediate application of these principles to particular instances." 

" The beau ideal is delineated to his view, and he forms his taste from 
the contemplation of perfect forms of beauty, instead of those imperfect 
forms where beauty is mingled with deformity." 

" As the wound made in the bark of the young and healthy tree, soon 
closes over, so sorrows in the minds of the young, are but of short du- 
ration." 

" They refer us also to those pages, where our tastes have been form- 
ed, and our minds disciplined and furnished with knowledge." 

" This may rather be called an impropriety than an equivocation ; 
since it results from the application of a qualifying word in a sense dif- 
ferent from that, which is authorised by good usage." 

" As several examples will be given, while treating of complex sen- 
tences, the farther notice of them is here omitted." 



SYNTAX. H5 

"Still such instances are but of rare occurrence." 

rfJ!;!i<i he tW ° exam P les , now S iven > we have instances, where greater 
distinctness is given to the view, by using a word in a more lenera 
sense than that usually applied to it." general 

" It may occur, that there are instances, where the repetition of words 
nearly synonymous in their meaning, adds force and strength to the 
expression. ° 

" Hence any directions for its attainment, are but of little practical 
importance. r 

Redundant words, fyc. 

"With this view he unites several simples, and in selecting the sim- 
ples that are to be united together for producing the required mixture 
and in determining the quantity of each to be used, there is judgment.' 

« What has been thus selected must now be combined together, and 
so combined, as to produce one harmonious effect." 

" The artist, under the guidance of taste, collects together those scat- 
tered fragments of beauty, and combining them in one view with har- 
monious effect, presents to us objects and scenes more beautiful than 
those which can be found in nature." 

"The emotion of beauty which is thus excited, is then to be account- 
ed tor on the principle which has been before stated." 

"That in metaphors we guard against uniting together lano-uao-e ap- 
plied figuratively and literally." ° ° l 

" Under the head of connectives, are included those words, which 
are used to connect different sentences together, or to connect different 
clauses and members of the same sentence." 

"Conjunctions of the same class maybe connected together, but such 
coalitions are often unnecessary and should be avoided." 

Improprieties in the use of the Pronoun, fyc. 

" While then inconvenience is experienced from the changes of lan- 
guage, in that it renders the authors of one period unintelligible at an- 
other, this evil is balanced by the introduction of more sio-nificant and 
harmonious words." ° 



Improprieties in the use of the Conjunction, fyc. 

"They differ from those of beauty, as being more elevatino- and en- 
nobling." ° 

"Every one acquainted with grammar, knows that adverbs are no 
essential parts of language, but that they might be dismissed, and thet 
same meaning expressed by circumlocutions." 

Improprieties in the use of the Preposition, ^-c. 
" He might then direct his attention more immediately to the style, 



116 SYNTAX, 

and examine its correctness, perspicuity, smoothness, adaptation of the 
subject, and the various qualities of a good style." 

" It is in accordance then with the directions stated above." 

" In good examples of the preceptive kind, each part, though suggest- 
ing another, is in itself separate and distinct, and the writer seeks rath- 
er to be fully understood, than to assign the reasons of what he says." 

"Of the Fine Arts, some are imitative, and others symbolical. 
Some exhibit an exact representation of the object or scene they would 
present before the mind ; such are Painting and Sculpture." 

"Hence the man ©f literary taste approves of the comparison from its 
fitness to the design of the writer." 

" It would be difficult to make any alteration of the sentence, which 
would place it nearer." 

"Perspicuity is a word of similar import with transparency, which is 
applied to air, to glass and to water, or to any substance, through which 
as a medium we are wont to look at objects." 

" I refer to what is included under the name of allusions. It will at 
once be seen, that though they differ in form from the comparison, they 
are of the same nature, and their introduction depends on similar prin- 
ciples." 

" Such expressions however are alloAved as the language of passion, 
and to instances of this kind the name of Hyperbole is applied." 

"We say that the object is in this case suggested naturally, because 
the transition is easy from the minds of the aged to the tombs, to which 
they are approaching." 

" Every language has certain forms of construction, either peculiar 
to itself, or a common with other languages," 



Ambiguous words and phrases. 

"Different modes of combination present themselves before his 
"mind's eye," and of these different combinations, one is to be selected 
as most beautiful." 

" The definition here given of taste, is also different from that found 
in Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric, which, as a text-book, is in most fre- 
quent use." 

" He might then hope, that his work, being conformed to tins gener- 
al standard of taste, would please all men, every where and of every 
age, who are susceptible of emotions of beauty, and whose minds are 
not under the influence of some particular bias." 

" He whose mind is enriched with various knowledge, and whose in- 
tellectual powers have been strengthened and unproved, and who is 
wont to take large and comprehensive views of subjects, will discover 
the greatness of his mind and the liberality of his views in his judgment 
of what is fitted to excite an emotion of taste." 



SYNTAX. 117 

" We never complain that glass is too transparent, and no more can 
style be too perspicuous." 

" The imploring look of the beggar had asked for silver and gold, and 
Peter in his answer discovers that he fully knew the meaning of that 
look, and lets the attention first rest on that, which is first in the mind's 
view." 

" In conversing on grave subjects, we should not use the lively and 
familiar forms of expression, which are suited to an hour of gaiety ; and 
we should be equally far from imitating the stately and involved modes 
of expression, which characterize some other language." 



"The advantages derived from the study of this branch of education, 
are not such as should be derived from it. It does not offer that exer- 
cise and improvement to the intellectual powers, which it should offer." 

The language of the preceding extract refers to the kind of advar • 
tages derived from the study, rather than to the degree of improvement 
made. The phrase " not so great" would probably, have given the 
meaning which the writer intended to convey to his readers. 

" It does not give that assistance towards forming a good style, which 
it ought to afford. And it is believed, that these effects have arisen in 
part from the manner in which it is studied." 

The Verbs here used do not correspond with each other in point of 
time. See Note 1, page 106. [" On the use of the Moods and Tenses."] 

" But we now ask, what may be hence inferred on the part of the 
writer i Do we not discover, that his mind has been stored with knowl- 
edge ? — that his imagination is active and well regulated, and his heart 
alive to emotion ?" 

It was, undoubtedly, the object of the preceding, to inquire what 
may be inferred respecting the writer ; but the language made use 
of ( on the part of the writer) refers to what the] writer himself may 
infer, rather than to what may be inferred respecting him, by others. 

Again. Allowing that we are able to discover from the productions 
of a writer, that " his imagination is active and well regulated," there 
would seem to be no reason for supposing that his mind has been de 
prived of any portion of the knowledge with which it had been stored. 
The present tense of the verb should have been used instead of the 
perfect — "is stored," instead of " has been stored." 

" Comparisons of this kind are called embellishing comparisons, and 
when naturally suggested, and in agreement with the subject and oc- 
casion, a excite strong emotions of beauty." 

11 



118 SYNTAX. 

Good usage requires that the pronoun they should be inserted be- 
fore " excite." 

" It is not unfrequent to find classical allusions in her writings, of 
which even to the classical student it is no shame to be ignorant." 

" It is not unfrequent to find" is not good English. " It is not un- 
frequent that we find ;" — " We not unfrequently find ;" are forms of 
expression supported by good authority. 

"Since the words of a language are ever changing, some becoming 
obsolete, and others coming into use, it is impossible from the nature 
of the case, that any Dictionary can continue for a length of time, to be 
a standard of good usage." 

Since a Dictionary which is a standard at all (even for a moment) is 
so "for a length of time ;" great, considerable, or some other qualifying 
word, should have been inserted before length, to fix the meaning of 
the writer. 

"Hence then may be inferred the need of additional caution in the 
use of those words, which may be regarded as adverbs, or adjectives, 
according to their position in the sentence." 

The words "Adverbs" and "Adjectives," not being synonymous, 
either should be inserted after " regarded," and as before " adjectives," 
thus " Which may be regarded either as adverbs, or as adjectives ac- 
cording to their position," &c. 

" The nominative and accusative, as the agent and object, are of more 
importance in a sentence, than other nouns which are dependent upon 
them." 

The writer here asserts that the nominative and accusative are of 
more importance in a sentence than other nouns ; improperly substitu- 
ting the names of two of the cases for the nouns he intended to describe. 
Mere accidents of nouns and pronouns cannot with propriety be so 
used. Pronouns are found in the position indicated by the cases de- 
nominated Nominative and Accusative, as frequently as Nouns are. 
"Nouns in the nominative," &c. would probably have given the 
meaning of the writer. 

" But another inquiry on this subject has arisen, May not a writer be 
too perspicuous, and not leave enough to exercise the ingenuity arid re- 
flection of his readers ?" 

In order properly to analyze the language in which this question is 
stated, we must supply the ellipsis in the latter clause ; thus, "May 



SYNTAX. 



119 



not a writer be too perspicuous and [may] not [a writer] leave enough," 
&c. ? Does this give the meaning which the author intended to con- 
vey to his readers ? Surely not. Will it be contended that a nega- 
tive is implied before leave ; and that the sentence should be under- 
stood thus, " May not a writer be too perspicuous and not, not leave," 
&c. i. e. " May not a writer not leave," &c. ? The form of the sentence 
should be varied. 

" How much then does it add to the vividness of our conception of 
what the author here says, that he fixes our attention on that quality, 
which he designs should be immediately in view, and on which his as- 
sertion is founded." 

The verb designs in the preceding paragraph is transitive and gov- 
erns the relative ivhich according to Rule 9 ; leaving the verb "should 
be" without a nominative, either expressed or understood. The same 
remarks are applicable to the words in Italic in the following paragraph. 

" It may be considered either as a synecdoche, when a part is put for 
the whole, or a metonymy, when the instrument is put for the agent. 
In either case, it directs the attention to what [that ivhich] the writer 
designed should be a prominent circumstance." 

" And as a general remark it may be said, that what is easy to read, 
is smooth in its sound to the ear." 

The passive form of the verb, read, should have been here used, 
instead of the active ; — "to be read" instead of "to read" 



" Long and short sentences should be intermingled, since the con- 
tinuance of either for a length of time is tedious and disgusting." 

Here Adjectives expressing inconsistent qualities, are improperly 
connected with the same noun. Correct thus, — " Long sentences and 
short [ones] should be intermingled," &c. 



The Solecism, or Grammatical blunder. 

To prevent the Solecism, or Grammatical blunder, is the Appropriate 
object of Syntax. — Prof. Newman. 

" The writer should ask himself, What do I wish to establish? What 
is the point at which I aim ? and when this is seen, it never should be 
lost sight of. The necessity of this direction will at once be perceived." 

" It may be said of the first part of this division, that it has no partic- 
ular reference to the object of the writer. It is a truth of general ap- 
plication, and might with equal propriety be assigned in enforcing any 
other duty, as in this instance." 



120 SYNTAX. 

" The forming of a plan is a species of scaffolding to aid us in erect- 
ing the building. When the edifice is finished, we may let the scaf- 
folding fall." 

" The traveller, when he stands on the banks of the Mississippi, and 
looks upon that noble river, flowing on with the power of collected 
waters, and bearing on its bosom the wealth of the surrounding region, 
stops to gaze on the scene before him, and regards it with admiration." 

" The admirer of Byron, whose mind is filled with his delightful hor- 
rors, and who is wont to admire his master-strokes of passion, in exam- 
ining the productions of other poets, will pronounce on their excellence, 
from their comparative effect on his own mind, and will approve or con- 
demn, as they agree \ with those of this great master of the art." 

" It is well known, that the use of numerous particles is a defect of 
our language. It iveakens the strength of expression." 



PROSODY. 



Prosody consists of two parts ; the former teaches the true pro- 
nunciation of words, comprising- Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, Pause, 
and Tone ; and the latter, the laws of Versification. 

Accent. — Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a 
certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the 
rest, or distinguished from them ; as in the word presume, the stress 
of the voice must be on the letter u, and second syllable sume, which 
takes the accent. 

Quantity. — The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occu- 
pied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel, which 
occasions it to be slowly joined, in pronunciation, to the following let- 
ter; as, "Fall, bale, mood, house, feature." 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant ; which oc- 
casions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, 
" ant, bonnet, hunger." 

A long syllable requires double the time of a short one in pronoun- 
cing it: Thus, "Mate" and "Note" should be pronounced as slowly 
again, as " Mat" and " Not." 

ExMphasis. — By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of 
voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we de- 
sign to lay particular stress and to show how they affect the rest of 
the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished 
by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 

Pauses. — Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total ces- 
sation of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a meas* 
urable space of time. 

VERSIFICATION. 
Versification, or Poetry, is a species of composition, made accord- 
ing to certain harmonious measures, or proportions of sound. 

Rhyme is that kind of poetry in which the terminating sound of one 
line, agrees with that of another ; as, 

Go tell my son said he, 
All thou hast heard of me. 

Blank verse, like other poetry, is measured, but does not rhyme j; as, 
All on earth is shadow ; all beyond 
Is substance : the reverse is folly's creed. 

II* 



122 PROSODY. 



Of Poetical Feet. 



A certain number of syllables, connected, form a foot. They are 
called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps 
along through the verse in a measured pace : and it is necessary that 
the syllables which mark this regular movement of the voice, should, in 
some way, be distinguished from the others. 

Feet are all reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four 
of three syllables ; viz. 

A Trochee - u A Dactyl - u o 

An Iambus u - An Amphibrach u - u 

A Spondee An Anapaest u y - 

A Pyrrhick w v A Tribrach w u w 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented and the last unaccent- 
ed ; as, hateful, pettish. 

Restless mortals toil for nought ; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought. 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last ac- 
cented ; as, delay, behold. 

And may at last my weary age, 
Find out the peaceful hermitage. 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables ^accented ; as, a 
high tree, the pale moon. 

See the bold youth strain up the threat'ning steep. 
Old time brings man to his long home. 
A Pyrrhick has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, 
on the tall tree. 

In a small stream, by the side of a mountain, 
We bath'd with delight. 
A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two un- 
accented ; as, conqueror, horrible. 

From the low pleasures of this fallen nature, 
Rise we to higher, &c. 
An Amphibrach has the first and last syllable unaccented, and 
the middle one accented ; as, delightful, amazing. 

The piece you say is incorrect, why take it, 
I'm all submission, what you'd have it make it. 
An Anapmst has the two first syllables unaccented, and the 
last accented ; as incommode, contravene. 

May I govern my passions with absolute sway, 
And grow wiser and better, as life fades away. 
A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, upardonable. 
innumerable. 

And rolls impetuous to the plain. 



PROSODY. 123 

Some of these feet may be denominated principal feet ; as pieces of 
poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the 
Trochee, Iambus, Dactyl, and Anapaest. They are capable also of 
numerous variations by mixing them with each other, and by the ad- 
mission of the secondary feet. The Spondee, Pyrrhick, Amphibrach, 
and Tribrach, are secondary feet. 

Measure, in poetry, is the number of syllables or feet contained in a 
line. The measures that are most in use, are those of ten, eight, and 
seven syllables : but the Iambick, TrochaicJc, and Anapcestick verse, is 
sometimes very short, and sometimes long measure. 

Directions respecting the use of Capital Letters. 
Capitals are used in the following situations. 

1. At the beginning of every principal word in the titles of books, 
chapters, &c. as, "Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language ; 
Rollin's Ancient History." 

2. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other 
piece of writing. 

3. The beginning of the first word after a period ; and if the two 
sentences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or ex- 
clamation. But, if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences 
are thrown into one general group ; or, if the construction of the latter 
sentence depends on the former, all of them except the first, may begin 
with small letters ; as, " How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simpli- 
city ? and the scorners delight in their scorning ? and fools hate knowl- 
edge ?" " Alas ! how different ! yet how like the same !" 

4. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a semicolon, or 
when it is in a direct form ; as, " Always remember this maxim : 
' Know thyself.' " 

5. The pronoun 7, and the interjection O, must always be capitals ; 
as " I write ; Hear, O earth." 

G. At the beginning of every line in poetry. 

7. All names, epithets, or qualities of our Creator, are always begun, 
if not wholly written, with capitals; as, God, Lord, Supreme Being, 
Almighty, Most High, Divine Providence. The word heaven must 

„ always begin with a capital, when used as the name of the King of 
heaven ; as, " May Heaven prosper you." But when it is used as the 
name of the abode of the blessed, it may begin with a small letter, ex- 
cept at the beginning of a sentence ; as, " The angels of heaven." 
" The Lord of heaven and earth." 

8. All proper names, of whatever description, must begin with cap- 
itals ; of persons, heathen, gods and goddesses, brutes, the planets,* 
the fixed stars and constellations, countries, kingdoms, states, cities, 
towns, streets, islands, mountains, rivers, ships, seas, oceans, &c. as, 
Benjamin Franklin ; Sir Isaac Newton ; the Alleghany Mountains ; 
the Ohio River ; Lake Superior ; the Red Sea ; the Frigate Guerriere. 
Also all adjectives derived from proper names ; as, the Newtonian 
System ; Grecian, Roman, American, French, Italian, &c. 



* Earth excepted. 






124 PUNCTUATION. 

9. All titles of honor, professions, and callings of men, particularly 
when an address is made, ought to begin with capitals ; as, President, 
Governor, General, Judge, Esquire, Mr. &c. Also all qualities used 
as titles of men ; as, Honorable, Reverend, &c. 

10. Capitals are always used to begin the names of all courts, socie- 
ties, and public bodies of men ; as, Congress, the General Assembly, 
the Supreme Judicial Court, the Court of Common Pleas, the Humane 
Society, the Corporation, &c. 

11. The names of all religious sects and denominations, are begun 
with capitals ; as, Episcopalians, Baptists, Friends, &c. 

12. Capitals are always used to begin the names of months, and the 
days of the week ; as, January, February, &c Monday, Tuesday, &c. 
Also all public days ; as, a Public Thanksgiving, a Solemn Fast, &c. 

13. The names of all articles of commerce, when entered in mer- 
chants' books, advertisements, &c. should begin with capitals ; as, Lin- 
en, Cotton, Silk, Rum, Sugar, Tea, &c. Also all sums of money spe- 
cified in notes, bonds, &c. as, Ten Dollars, and Seventy-five Cents. 

14. Very emphatical words are frequently begun, and sometimes 
wholly written in capitals. 



RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 

COMMA. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which,, 
though very closely connected in sense and construction, require a 
pause between them. 

Rule 1. The several words which compose a simple sentence, 
have in general so near a relation to each other, that no points are re- 
quisite, except a full stop at the end of it. But when the simple sen- 
tence is a long one, and the nominative case is accompanied with 
inseparable adjuncts, a comma should be inserted immediately before 
the Verb. 

Rule 2. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple 
sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually pla- 
ced at the beginning, and at the end of such phrase. 

Rule 3. When two or more Nouns, two or more Adjectives, two 
or more Verbs, or Participles, or Adverbs occur in the same grammati- 
cal construction, they are separated from each other by a comma ; but 
when they are closely connected by a Conjunction, the comma should 
not be inserted. 

Rule 4. Expressions in a direct address, the nominative case ab- 
solute, and Infinitive Mood absolute, are separated from the body of the 
sentence by a comma. 

Rule 5. Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, 
are, for the most part, separated by commas. If the members are short, 
the comma is better omitted. 



PUNCTUATION. 125 

Rule 6. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or 
with some marked variety, they should be distinguished by a comma. 
Such sentences are called antithetical. 

Rule 7. Relative Pronouns are connective words, and generally 
admit a comma before them ; but when two members or phrases are 
closely connected by a Relative, restraining the general notion of the 
antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted. The 
whole of this rule applies, when the Relative is understood, as well as 
when expressed. 

Rule 8. A simple member of a sentence, contained within another 
or following another, must be distinguished by a comma. If, however, 
the members succeeding each other are very closely connected, the 
comma is unnecessary. When a Verb in the Infinitive Mood follows 
its governing Verb, with several words between them, those words 
should generally have a comma at the end of them. Several Verbs in 
the Infinitive Mood, having a common dependence, and, succeeding one 
another, are also divided by commas. 

Rule 9. When the Verb to be is followed by a Verb in the Infini- 
tive Mood, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative, the 
Verb to be is separated from the following Verb by a comma. 

Rule 10. Where a verb is understood, a comma may often be 
properly introduced. 

Rule 11. The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, 
now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in 
short, and all other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally 
be separated from the context by a comma. 



SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or 
more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a 
comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other, as those which are 
distinguished by a colon. 



COLON. 
[This point is not so much used as formerlv.] 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less 
connected than those which are separated by a semicolon ; but not so 
independent as separate, distinct sentences. 

The colon may be applied in the three following cases : — 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed 
by some explanatory remark. 

2. When a semicolon, or more than one, have preceded, and a still 
greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the concluding sentiment, 
and show its relation to the first, 



126 PUNCTUATION. 

3. The colon is generally used when an example, a quotation, or 
speech is introduced ; as, The Scriptures give us an amiable represen- 
tation of the Deity, in these words : "God is love." 



PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in 
construction with the following sentence, it is marked with a period. 

The period should be used, also, after every abbreviated word ; as, 
M. S.— P. S.— N. B.— A. D.— O. S.— N. S., &c. 

The Point of Interrogation [ ? ] is used when a question is asked. 
The Exclamation [ ! ] is used when some sudden emotion of surprise, 
joy, grief, &c. is expressed. The Parentheses [()] are used when 
some necessary information or useful remark is introduced into the 
body of the sentence obliquely, and which may be admitted without in- 
juring the grammatical construction ; as, 

"Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 

There are other characters, which are frequently made use of in 
composition, which may be explained in this place, viz : 

An x\postrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or shorten a 
word ; as His for it is ; the? for though ; e'en for even ; judged forjudg- 
ed. Its chief use is to show the possessive case of nouns ; as, " A 
man's property ; A woman's ornament." 

A Caret, marked thus \ is placed where some word happens to be 
left out in writing, and which is inserted over the line. 

A Hyphen, marked thus, - is employed in connecting compounded 
words; as, Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, 
mother-in-law. 

A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally placed at 
the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is quoted or transcribed 
from the speaker or author in bis own words ; and two commas in their 
direct position, are placed at the conclusion : as, 

" The proper study of mankind is man." 



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